UNIT 2: CONTINUITY OF THE HUMAN SPECIES
General objectives
On completion of Unit 2, you should be able to:
- explain that cells carry out the life-sustaining processes of cellular respiration, synthesis and growth
- explain how the structures of tissues, cells and cellular organelles are related to the functions that they perform
- describe the role of DNA, enzymes and ATP in cellular metabolism
- discuss the nature, types and causes of cancer, preventative measures and treatments
- relate the structure of reproductive cells and organ systems to the functions they perform
- explain how decisions relating to sexual behaviour, the control of pregnancy and treatment of infertility involve consideration of relevant physiological, social and moral factors
- discuss the structural, physiological, behavioural and intellectual changes that occur during human development and senescence
- explain how genetic and environmental factors influence all aspects of human development and senescence
- describe the causative organisms, effects of and treatments for, sexually transmitted diseases, and the social factors influencing their spread
- demonstrate competence in preparing wet mount slides, staining slides by irrigation, and using a monocular microscope to observe slides using both low and high power objective lenses
- demonstrate an interest in the scientific study of human problems and be willing to use scientific approaches to dealing with these problems
- display empathy towards individuals with physical, social and intellectual disabilities.
Unit 2 is broken up into the following topics. The content covered in each of these topics is listed below. The points in normal type style can be expected to be covered in tests.
The points in italic style at the end of each topic are not always covered and if they are, they are assessed in work other than tests.
2.1 Cell Structure and Metabolism
2.2 Reproduction
2.3 Pregnancy
2.4 Infancy and Childhood
2.5 Adolescence, Adulthood and Senescence
Introduction (Human Biology Course Overview)
The nature and scope of the subject of Human Biology. Humans will be studied at the levels of populations, organisms, systems, organs, tissues and cells.
Humans are classified as mammals, primates and hominids.
2.1 Cell structure and metabolism
a) The human body consists of systems, organs, tissues and cells.
b) Cells perform the life processes of cellular respiration, synthesis and growth.
c) Substances move across cell membranes by diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
d) The structure of the cell in relation to the functions it performs: endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles, nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membranes, chromosomes.
e) Cellular respiration involves energy transformation from glucose to ATP in the mitochondrion. (Details of glycolysis and citric acid cycle are not required.)
f) Supply of energy for synthesis, muscle contraction, nerve impulses etc.
g) Synthesis of cell components requires energy and matter.
h) The function and properties of enzymes, the lock and key model.
i) DNA as the information which directs the synthesis of proteins by ribosomes.
j) Growth by mitotic cell division, cell expansion and cell specialisation.
k) The structure and function of four basic tissue types: epithelial, muscular, nervous and connective (as illustrated by one example of each).
l) Cancer: types, causes, diagnosis, prevention and treatment.
m) The cytological techniques used to study the structure and function of cells: sectioning, staining, light and electron microscopy, radioactive tracers and chromatography.
n) The genetic code, messenger and transfer RNA.
2.2 Reproduction
a) Sexual reproduction as a cellular event.
b) Gametes carry genetic information from parents to offspring.
c) The advantages of placental development, long gestation and infant dependency.
d) The macroscopic structures of the male reproductive system: scrotum, penis, testes, seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, accessory glands, urethra.
e) The macroscopic structures of the female reproductive system: labia, vagina, clitoris, ovaries, fimbriae, uterine tubes, uterus, endometrium, and cervix.
f) Stages of the menstrual and ovarian cycles, natural forms of contraception.
g) The function of the reproductive systems: meiosis and gametogenesis, erection, semen, insemination, orgasm, transport of egg and sperm,
survival times of gametes, fertilisation, implantation, signs and symptoms of pregnancy, identical and non-identical twins.
h) Hormones as regulators of the development and maintenance of reproductive structures and behaviours.
i) The roles of estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, HCG and prolactin. (Feedback loops are not necessary.)
j) The mechanisms, effects, cost, side effects and ethical issues associated with the use of artificial forms of contraception. Sterilisation.
k) Sexually transmitted diseases: syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia, herpes, AIDS, causative agents, effects, treatment and control.
l) The aetiology of breast, cervical, testicular and prostate cancers and the importance of self-examination and screening for these cancers.
m) Oxytocin and prostaglandins.
n) Causes and treatment of infertility, artificial insemination by donor, in-vitro fertilisation, surrogacy, ethical issues.
2.3 Pregnancy
a) Implantation, cell multiplication and specialisation.
b) The three primary tissues.
c) The embryo (weeks 0-8) and fetus (weeks 9-39).
d) Milestones of development: heart beat, limb buds and ossification.
e) Role and development of amnion, chorion and placenta.
f) The impact of parental lifestyle choices on the healthy growth and development of the embryo/fetus.
g) Prenatal care.
h) Signs and symptoms of the birth process.
i) Changes to mother and child during birth.
j) Post-natal care.
k) Genetic potential and environmental determination.
l) Natural birth, induction, breech.
m) Caesarean, Leboyer, home and hospital births.
n) Defects due to abnormal birth.
o) SIDS (cot death).
p) Environmental and genetic causes of birth defects. Rubella, alcohol, smoking, diet, radiation, mutagenic agents, chromosomal and gene mutations.
q) Birth defects: types and frequencies: Down syndrome, cleft lip, spina bifida, PKU, muscular dystrophy.
r) Genetic screening and counselling, amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, karyotypes, fetoscopy and ultrasound, abortion.
2.4 Infancy and childhood
a) Dependency of offspring, for food, hygiene and protection.
b) The structure of the breast and breast feeding, relative merits of breast and bottle feeding.
c) Intellectual and emotional needs, bonding.
d) Milestones of development.
e) Changes in physical proportion.
f) Gross-to-specific, cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends in motor development.
g) The role of parents in the social and language development of the child.
h) Parental roles, the one-parent family, working mothers, child care centres.
i) Laws relating to children in Australia, the Family Court.
j) Cultural family patterns, nuclear and extended families, the role of grandparents.
k) Cultural patterns of feeding babies.
l) Piagetian ages and stages of intellectual development.
2.5 Adolescence, Adulthood and Senescence
a) Physical, social and sexual development during puberty.
b) Transition to independence and interdependence.
c) Menopause.
d) Ageing, characteristics of senescence.
e) Dying, signs of death, stages of dying, needs of the dying person and the family; the modern hospice concept.
f) Indices of physical maturity.
g) Theories of ageing.
h) The range of sexual behaviours and factors influencing their development.
i) Bio-ethical issues relating to euthanasia.
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