UNIT 1: HUMANS AS FUNCTIONING ORGANISMS
General objectives
On completion of Unit 1, you should be able to:
- describe human biology as a multidisciplinary study of humans at the levels of populations, individuals, systems, tissues and cells
- describe the general principles of biological classification and those features that characterise humans as mammals, primates and hominids
- recognise that an upright stance, uniquely intelligent brain and highly manipulative hands distinguish humans from other primates
- explain that human posture, object manipulation and locomotion involve the co-ordinated activity of muscular and skeletal systems
- describe the body’s requirements for nutrients and oxygen to supply energy and matter for activity, growth, repair and replacement
- explain how the digestive system facilitates the absorption of nutrient molecules
- explain how the respiratory system is adapted for efficient uptake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide
- describe how the circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen to the cells, waste material and carbon dioxide from the cells, and acts as a link between all body tissues and major organ systems
- describe the beneficial effects of exercise on the musculo-skeletal, respiratory and circulatory systems
- describe the major cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and explain the factors which increase their risk of occurrence
- accurately measure time, length, mass, volume, temperature and pulse rate
- use food composition tables to analyse a diet and demonstrate competence in conducting chemical tests on foods
- demonstrate an awareness of basic first aid skills associated with bone fractures, haemorrhage and resuscitation
- demonstrate a positive attitude towards adopting a health sustaining lifestyle.
Unit 1 is broken up into the following units. The content covered in each of these topics is listed below. The points in normal type can be expected to be covered in tests. The points typed in italics at the end of each topic are not always covered and if they are, they are assessed in work other than tests.
1.1 Posture and Movement
1.2 The Primates
1.3 Gas Exchange
1.4 Nutrient Procurement
1.5 Internal Transport
1.6 Exercise and Cardiovascular Diseases
Content
Introduction
Overview of the nature and scope of the subject of human biology. Humans can be studied at the levels of populations, organisms, systems, organs, tissues and cells. Humans are classified as mammals, primates and hominids.
1.1 POSTURE AND MOVEMENT
a) The skeleton as the structural framework of the body.
b) Bone as a tissue.
c) Major bones and their functions.
d) Types of joints and the range of movement they permit: ball and socket, hinge, pivot and gliding.
e) The structure of synovial joints as illustrated by the knee joint.
f) First aid associated with bone fractures.
g) Adaptations to an erect posture especially the foot, knee, pelvis, vertebral column and foramen magnum, as compared to a quadruped.
h) Movement about a joint as a result of the contraction of paired muscles attached to articulated bones by tendons.
i) The co-ordinated functioning of the muscles and skeleton in supporting the body against gravity; muscle tone.
j) The functional anatomy of the upper limbs in relation to object manipulation: major bones, joints and muscle groups.
k) Power and precision grip.
l) Adaptations of the thumb in relation to precise object manipulation.
m) The functional anatomy of the lower limbs in relation to locomotion: major bones, joints and muscle groups.
n) The sliding filament model of muscle contraction, actin and myosin.
o) Injuries to ligaments, tendons, bones, cartilages and nerves.
p) Arthritis, slipped disc, whiplash, paraplegia and quadriplegia.
1.2 THE PRIMATES
a) Primate features, adaptations and evolutionary trends as illustrated by a comparative study of humans and other present day primates (with at least one example from each of prosimians, new world monkeys, old world monkeys, lesser apes and pongids; formal classification names not required).
b) A comparative study of the social behaviour of the non-human primates, human social behaviour, communication.
c) Features characteristic of hominids: upright stance, uniquely intelligent brain and highly manipulative hands.
1.3 GAS EXCHANGE
a) The structure and function of the respiratory system - nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleural membranes, diaphragm, intercostal muscles and vocal cords.
b) The mechanics of breathing.
c) First aid associated with resuscitation.
d) Diffusion of gases between air in the alveolus and the blood.
e) Composition of inhaled and exhaled air.
f) The role of erythrocytes and plasma in the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
g) Asthma, emphysema and lung cancer.
h) Respiratory and circulatory adaptations to high altitude.
i) Respiratory volumes
1.4 NUTRIENT PROCUREMENT
Cells require nutrients – amino acids, simple sugars, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals to supply energy for metabolism and matter for synthesis. Concept of balanced diet, dietary defects.
Energy values of foods. Variations in dietary needs in infancy, adolescence and pregnancy.
The derivation of these nutrients from proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Simple chemistry of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins at the level of their major building blocks, i.e. glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol. Mechanical digestion, the four types of teeth.
Tooth structure, deciduous and permanent teeth, dental formulae, dental diseases.
Chemical digestion by enzymes; names (use source terms e.g. salivary amylase) source, substrate and product. The structure of the alimentary canal in relation to its functions – secretion, absorption, peristalsis and defecation.
Anorexia nervosa, ulcers, indigestion, constipation and bowel cancer.
The role of the circulatory and lymphatic systems in absorption and transport of products of digestion via the liver to the tissues.
Food poisoning and health regulations for the food industry.
1.5 INTERNAL TRANSPORT
The body's requirements for nutrients and oxygen to supply energy and matter for activity, growth, replacement and repair. The need for a specialised transport system. The circulatory system as the link between all the major organs of the body and the body tissues. The heart – chambers, valves, vessels, direction of blood flow. Blood pressure. General direction and function of systemic and pulmonary circulation. Names of major vessels only – aorta, vena cavae, pulmonary vessels, carotid, coronary, renal, mesenteric, hepatic portal system. Structure and functions of arteries, veins, capillaries; mention arterioles and venules. Origin and fate of blood cells (not in detail), as well as their general functions. The first aid associated with haemorrhage and shock.
Blood clotting, blood transfusion, blood groups, anaemia.
Relationships between cells, tissue fluid and plasma. Exchange between capillaries and tissue fluid, diffusion, the return of tissue fluid in the lymphatic system.
Respiratory and circulatory adaptations to high altitudes. Respiratory volumes.
1.6 EXERCISE AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
Atherosclerosis, stroke and heart attack. Risk factors – hereditary, smoking, poor diet, lack of exercise, stress, – their physiological effects and resultant diseases.
A health-sustaining lifestyle.
Planning and conducting an exercise program. Measurement of levels of fitness. Effects of exercise on muscle tone, flexibility of joints, oxygen consumption, vascularisation of muscle and heart functioning.
|
