Barton, Ellen (1993) Evidentials, Argumentation and Epistemological
Stance. College English 55 (7) 745-769.
The use of evidentials - Words and phrases that express attitudes
toward knowledge (Chafe)
Some language have special grammatical categories for evidentials.
English has a variety of optional, non-propositional constructions:
o
Modals (must, should)
o
Sentential adverbs (possibly, normally, undoubtedly)
o
Sentence-initial conjunctions (but)
o
Prepositional phrases (of course, in fact)
o
Predications (I believe that, X claims that)
Evidentials qualify knowledge in three ways:
o
Evaluating the degree of reliability of knowledge
(Includes expressions such
as probably, certainly, generally, virtually)
o
Specifying the mode of knowledge
(belief, I think, I
believe, in my opinion, induction it seems, deduction thus,
sensory evidence, hearsay, eg)
o
Marking the contrast between knowledge and expectation
(hedges and contrastive
expressions, of course, in fact, oddly enough, but, however, nevertheless,
actually)
Barton’s (1991) findings (academic/expert writing)
1. Problematization
– ‘ a prevailing assumption, idea, view, or situation needs reexamination
reconceptualisation’ (Barton 1993:749) – ‘the preferred first move of
experienced writers’ (p754). Evidentials of contrast unfortunately, but,
however, yet.
2.
Persona – 96 of authors used first person reference I think that, I
believe that (combined with evidentials of belief), individual versus academic
community derived authority we believe that
3.
Citation, prefaced with verbs like say, report, show, demonstrate,
or articulating a perspective on the literature urges, proposes, implores,
favours the author over his opponents (proponents argue, opponents presuppose).
‘Appropriate the literature in service of his or her critical perspective’
(p754).
4. Argument –
evidentials of deduction as a result, thus, of degree-of-reliability in
general, undeniable.
5. Epistemological
Stance – ‘the underlying perspective on knowledge represented in the text’ –
generally contrastive and competitive in academic writing with the use of
arguments and counterarguments.
Barton’s findings on student writing
1.
Only 60% of student writers problematised their topics, making
problematisation more of a general statement.
o
According to Kantz (1990), students misread academic texts as
narratives (p78). She proposes teaching a ‘rhetorical reading’ or reading a
text as a message set from one person to another for some reason (p80).
o
According to Barton (1991), where any controversy exists it is
converted into "simple indisputable generalisations" (p751).
o
Academic writers, however, take a stance where knowledge becomes a
product of contrast and which "values the knowledge-maker as an individual
with a critical perspective" (p765).
o
These generalizations are marked with time markers (today, always)
or group markers (we, many, the American public, human beings)
2.
Student writers used we from the context of general life, not
from the context of the academic community (our world, we as mature adults,
we the people) with minimal construction
of an academically credentialed persona (During several years of
study, I have..).
3.
Evidentials usually remain neutral using denotational reporting verbs (states,
indicates, writes) including none of their own perspective
(writer acts). Citation is also generalized through un-named sources, (it is
argued that, Most will agree that, Critics argue that).
4.
Argumentation by students was based more on agreement with little
disagreement of counterargument. This is marked with generalizing words (usually,
prior.. and present, kids of today). Arguments generally
developed/supported with exemplification (for instance, the most obvious
example)
5.
Epistemological Stance - student writers maintain neutrality by taking
a stance "that privileges knowledge defined as product of shared social
agreement" (p765) whereas as academic writer take a stance that privileges
knowledge as a product of contrast characterized as a critical perspective.