[Home] [Updates] [Site map] [My Quotes; JW unclassified & classified quotes] [My Jesus is Jehovah! blog]
The following are quotes added to my Jesus is Jehovah unclassified quotes database in March 2008.
The date format is dd/mm/yy. See copyright conditions at end.
2008: Jan, Feb, Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug, Sep, Oct, Nov, Dec.
1/03/2008
"Cross Definition: The device on which Jesus Christ was executed is referred to by most of Christendom
as a cross. The expression is drawn from the Latin crux. Why do Watch Tower publications show
Jesus on a stake with hands over his head instead of on the traditional cross? The Greek word rendered
`cross' in many modern Bible versions ('torture stake' in NW) is stau·ros'. In classical Greek, this word
meant merely an upright stake, or pale. Later it also came to be used for an execution stake having a
crosspiece. The Imperial Bible-Dictionary acknowledges this, saying: `The Greek word for cross,
[stau·ros'], properly signified a stake, an upright pole, or piece of paling, on which anything might be
hung, or which might be used in impaling [fencing in] apiece of ground.... Even amongst the Romans the
crux (from which our cross is derived) appears to have been originally an upright pole.'-Edited by P.
Fairbairn (London, 1874), Vol. I, p. 376. ... The book The Non-Christian Cross, by J. D. Parsons (London,
1896), says: `There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament,
which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of
Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of
timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross.... It is not a little misleading upon the part of
our teachers to translate the word stauros as `cross' when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into
our native tongue, and to support that action by putting `cross' in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros
without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the
Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only
because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the
particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape.' - Pp. 23, 24; see also The
Companion Bible (London, 1885), Appendix No. 162. Thus the weight of the evidence indicates that Jesus
died on an upright stake and not on the traditional cross." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Reasoning
from the Scriptures," [1985], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition,
1989, pp.89-90. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Prior to coming to earth, this only-begotten Son of God did not think himself to be co-equal with Jehovah
God; he did not view himself as "equal in power and glory" with Almighty God; he did not follow the course
of the Devil and plot and scheme to make himself like or equal to the Most High God and to rob God or
usurp God's place. On the contrary, he showed his subjection to God as his Superior by humbling himself
under God's almighty hand, even to the most extreme degree, which means to a most disgraceful death on a
torture stake." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Let God Be True," [1946], Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1952, pp.34-35)
1/03/2008
"At passover time A.D. 33, with the aid of the traitorous apostle Judas Iscariot, they seized Jesus, gave him
a mock trial, handed him over to the Gentiles for trial by Pontius Pilate and Herod Antipas, and then blocked
his release by stirring up the misguided Jewish people to cry for Jesus to be hanged on a torture stake like a
seditious lawbreaker and blasphemer. He died obedient to God, without renouncing God's kingdom."
(Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Let God Be True," [1946], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn
NY, Second edition, 1952, pp.39-40)
1/03/2008
"On Nisan 14 of the year 33 C.E. Jesus' enemies put him to death on a torture stake. He could have resisted,
but he did not. (Matthew 26:53, 54). He willingly laid down his life in sacrifice for us. As his apostle Peter
tells us: `He himself bore our sins in his own body upon the stake, in order that we might be done with sins
and live to righteousness. And `by his stripes you were healed.' - 1 Peter 2:24; see also Hebrews 2:9."
(Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "The Truth that Leads to Eternal Life," Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society: Brooklyn NY, 1968, pp.52-53)
1/03/2008
"As we have seen, the perfect man Jesus resisted all of Satan's temptations and bribes. Further, when
whipped by soldier guards and nailed to a cruel torture stake to die, Jesus held fast his loyalty to God. (1
Peter 2:23) This proved that perfect Adam could have done the same if he had wanted to, and that God was
not unrighteous in requiring full obedience from man. (2 Thessalonians 1:4, 5) By his loyalty to Jehovah,
Jesus gave the finest answer to Satan's false challenge." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "The Truth
that Leads to Eternal Life," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY, 1968, p.71)
1/03/2008
"Fearing for his political position and reputation, Pilate finally caves in under the Jews' relentless demands.
He hands Jesus over. The soldiers strip Jesus of the purple cloak and clothe him with his outer garments. As
Jesus is led off to be impaled, he is made to bear his own torture stake. By now it is midmorning on Friday,
Nisan 14; perhaps it is approaching noon. Jesus has been up since early Thursday morning, and he has
suffered one agonizing experience after another. Understandably, his strength soon gives out under the
weight of the stake. So a passerby, a certain Simon of Cyrene in Africa, is impressed into service to carry it
for him." (Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, "The Greatest Man Who Ever Lived," Watchtower Bible &
Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, 1991, Ch. 124)
1/03/2008
"Jesus is now stretched out on the stake with his hands placed above his head. The soldiers then pound
large nails into his hands and into his feet. He wrenches with pain as the nails pierce flesh and ligaments.
When the stake is swung upright, the pain is excruciating, for the weight of the body tears at the nail
wounds. Yet, rather than threaten, Jesus prays for the Roman soldiers: `Father, forgive them, for they do not
know what they are doing.' Pilate has posted on the stake a sign that reads: `Jesus the Nazarene the King of
the Jews.' Apparently, he writes this not only because he respects Jesus but because he loathes the Jewish
priests for their having wrung Jesus' death sentence from him. So that all may read the sign, Pilate has it
written in three languages- in Hebrew, in the official Latin, and in the common Greek." (Watch Tower Bible &
Tract Society, "The Greatest Man Who Ever Lived," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York:
Brooklyn NY, 1991, Ch. 125)
1/03/2008
"Cross Meaning of Original Hebrew and Greek Words `Cross' (AV, AS, Dy, RS) is translated
from the Greek word stau·ros', which `denotes, primarily, an upright pale or stake. On such malefactors
were nailed for execution.' (Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words, London, England; 1962; W.
E. Vine, Vol. I, page 256) The Greek verb stau·ro'o ('crucify,' AV) meant `to fence with pales' as a
stockade, or `to fasten or fix on a pole or stake,' `to impale.' (John 19:15) The Greek word xy'lon, meaning
`tree or stake' or a piece of wood,' Is also used in reference to the instrument used to put Jesus to death.
(Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29) The Hebrew word 'ets, meaning `stake' or `tree, wood, timber, stick,' is used at
Deuteronomy 21:22, 23, which Paul quotes at Galatians 3:13 in reference to the means of Jesus' death."
(Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Make Sure of All Things, Hold Fast to What Is Fine," Watchtower
Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, 1965, p.139. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Early Pagan Use of Cross The shape of the `cross,' two beams at right angles, `had its origin in ancient
Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of
his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the
churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to
increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart
from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the
Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the cross of
Christ.' Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words (London, England; 1962), W. E. Vine, Vol. I, page
256. `Various objects, dating from periods long anterior to the Christian era, have been found, marked with
crosses of different designs, in almost every part of the old world. India, Syria, Persia and Egypt have all
yielded numberless examples, while numerous instances, dating from the later Stone age to Christian times,
have been found in nearly every part of Europe. The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-Christian
times and among non-Christian peoples may probably be regarded as almost universal, and in very many
cases it was connected with some form of nature warship.'- The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1946, Vol. 6,
page 753." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Make Sure of All Things, Hold Fast to What Is Fine,"
Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, 1965, p.139. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Earliest Use of Cross by Professed Christians `It may be safely asserted that only after the edict of
Milan, A.D. 312, was the cross used as the permanent sign of our Redemption. De Rossi positively states
that no monogram of Christ, discovered in the catacombs or other places, can be traced to a period anterior
to the year 312. Even after that epoch-making year, the church, then free and triumphant, contented herself
with having a simple monogram of Christ: the Greek letter chi vertically crossed by a rho, and
horizontally sometimes, by an iota. ... The oldest crucifix mentioned as an object of public worship is the
one venerated in the Church of Narbonne in southern France, as early as the 6th century." - The
Ecclesiastical Review (Baltimore, Maryland; September 1920), No. 3, page 275." (Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society, "Make Sure of All Things, Hold Fast to What Is Fine," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New
York: Brooklyn NY, 1965, pp.139-140. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Matthew 10:38 - "torture stake" ([...], stau·ros', Greek; [...], tzelab' or [...], tzeluhb', Hebrew; crux,
Latin) This is the expression used in connection with the execution of Jesus at Calvary. There is no evidence
that the Greek word stau·ros' meant here a `cross' such as the pagans used as a religious symbol for many
centuries before Christ to denote the sun-god." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World translation
of the Christian Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY,
Second edition, 1951, p.768
1/03/2008
"In the classical Greek the word stau·ros' meant merely an upright stake or pale, or a pile such as is used
for a foundation. The verb stau·ro'o meant to fence with pales, to form a stockade or palisade, and this is
the verb used when the mob called for Jesus to be impaled. To such a stake or pale the person to be
punished was fastened, just as when the popular Greek hero Pro·me'the·us was represented as tied to a stake
or stau·ros'. The Greek word which the dramatist Aes'chy·lus used to describe this means to fasten or fix
on a pole or stake, to impale, and the Greek author Lucian used a·na·stau·ro'o as a synonym for that word.
In the Christian Greek Scriptures a·na·stau·ro'o occurs but once, at Hebrews 6:6. The root verb stau·ro'o
occurs more than 40 times, and we have rendered it "impale", with the footnote: "Or, `fasten on a stake or
pole.".'" (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures,"
[1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951, pp.768-769)
1/03/2008
"The inspired writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures wrote in the common (koi·ne') Greek and used the
word stau·ros' to mean the same thing as in the classical Greek, namely, a stake or pale, a simple one
without a crossbeam of any kind or at any angle. There is no proof to the contrary." (Watchtower Bible &
Tract Society, "New World translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951, p.769)
1/03/2008
"The apostles Peter and Paul also use the word xy'lon to refer to the torture instrument upon which Jesus
was nailed, and this argues that it was an upright stake without a crossbeam, for that is what xy'lon in this
special sense means. (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Galatians 3:13; 1 Peter 2:24) At Ezra 6:11 we find xy'lon in the
Greek Septuagint (1 Esdras 6:31), and there it is spoken of as a beam on which the violator of law was to be
hanged, the same as at Luke 23:39; Acts 5:30; 10:39." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World
translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York:
Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951, p.769)
1/03/2008
"The fact that stau·ros' is translated crux in the Latin versions furnishes no argument against this. Any
authoritative Latin dictionary will inform the examiner that the basic meaning of crux is a `tree, frame, or
other wooden instrument of execution' on which criminals were impaled or hanged. (Lewis-Short) A cross
is only a later meaning of crux. Even in the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.,
crux means a mere stake." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World translation of the Christian
Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition,
1951, p.769)
1/03/2008
"Such a single stake for impalement of a criminal was called crux simplex, and the method of nailing him to
such an instrument of torture is illustrated by the Roman Catholic scholar, Justus Lipsius, of the 16th
century. We present herewith a photographic copy of his illustration on page 647, column 2, of his book
De Cruce Liber Primus. This is the manner in which Jesus was impaled." (Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society, "New World translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951, p.769)
1/03/2008
"Religious tradition from the days of Emperor Constantine proves nothing. Says that monthly publication
for the Roman Catholic clergy, The Ecclesiastical Review, of September, 1920, No. 3, of Baltimore,
Maryland, page 275: `It may be safely asserted that only after the edict of Milan, A.D. 312, was the cross
used as the permanent sign of our Redemption. De Rossi positively states that no monogram of Christ,
discovered in the catacombs or other places, can be traced to a period anterior to the year 312. Even after
that epoch-making year, the church, then free and triumphant, contented herself with having a simple
monogram of Christ: the Greek letter chi vertically crossed by a rho, and horizontally sometimes by an
iota. [...] The oldest crucifix mentioned as an object of public worship is the one venerated in the Church
of Narbonne in southern France, as early as the 6th century.' " (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New
World translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York:
Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951, pp.769-770)
1/03/2008
"Rather than consider the torture stake upon which Jesus was impaled a relic to be worshiped, the Jewish
Christians like Simon Peter would consider it to be an abominable thing. At Galatians 3:13 the apostle Paul
quotes from Deuteronomy 21: 22, 23, which reads: `If any man has committed a sin deserving death, and if he
is put to death by being impaled upon a stake, his corpse must not remain all night upon the stake; you must
be sure to bury him the same day, for an impaled man is under God's curse.'- Moffatt; An Amer. Trans.
Hence the Jewish Christians would hold as accursed and hateful the stake upon which Jesus had been
executed. Says the celebrated Jewish authority, Moses Mai·mon'i·des, of the 12th century: `They never hang
upon a tree which clings to the soil by roots; but upon a timber uprooted, that it might not be an annoying
plague: for a timber upon which anyone has been hanged is buried; that the evil name may not remain with it
and people should say, `This is the timber on which so-and-so was hanged.' So the stone with which
anyone has been stoned; and the sword, with which the one killed has been killed; and the cloth or mantle
with which anyone has been strangled; all these things are buried along with those who perished.' (I.
Casaubon's Exercitationes contra Baronium, 16, An. 34, No. 134) Says Kalinski in Vaticinia
Observationibus Illustrata, page 342: `Consequently since a man hanged was considered the greatest
abomination-the Jews also hated more than other things the timber on which he had been hanged, so that
they covered it also with earth, as being equally an abominable thing.'" (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society,
"New World translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New
York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951, pp.770-771)
1/03/2008
"The book The Cross and Crucifixion by Hermann Fulda, Breslau, Germany, 1878, says: `Trees were not
everywhere available at the places chosen for the public execution. So a simple beam was sunk into the
ground. On this the outlaws, with hands raised upward and often also with their feet, were bound or nailed.
... This simple cross was the oldest instrument erected by human hand for punishment with crucifixion; and
because of its very simplicity it has maintained itself in this form alongside its somewhat more artificial
double down to the end.' After submitting much proof, Fulda concludes: `Jesus died on a simple death-
stake: In support of this there speak (a) the then customary usage of this means of execution in the Orient,
(b) indirectly the history itself of Jesus' sufferings and (c) many expressions of the early church fathers.' -
Pages 156, 339." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World translation of the Christian Greek
Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951,
p.771)
1/03/2008
"The evidence is, therefore, completely lacking that Jesus Christ was crucified on two pieces of timber
placed at a right angle. We refuse to add anything to God's written Word by inserting the pagan cross into
the inspired Scriptures, but render stau·ros' and xy'lon according to the simplest meanings. Since Jesus
used stau·ros' to represent the suffering and shame or torture of his followers (Matthew 16:24), we have
translated stau·ros' as `torture stake', to distinguish it from xy'lon, which we have translated `stake', or,
in the footnote, `tree,' as at Acts 5:30. This is a revolutionary translation, we admit, but it is the purest one.
The passing of time and further archaeological discoveries will be certain to prove its correctness. Even now
the burden rests upon all who contend for the religious tradition to prove that Jesus died on more than a
simple stake." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World translation of the Christian Greek
Scriptures," [1950], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1951,
p.771)
1/03/2008
"The same cannot be said for the translation `torture stake' for cross or the use of the divine name, Jehovah,
in the New Testament. Although `stauros' does not necessarily mean an upright beam with a cross
member, the New World translators are both inaccurate and dishonest in saying that there is no evidence
that Jesus was crucified or hanged on a cross. While `stauros' may properly be translated as 'stake,' there
is simply no basis at all for modifying it with the adjective `torture.'" (Penton, M.J., "Apocalypse Delayed:
The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses," [1985], University of Toronto Press: Toronto ON, Second edition, 1997,
p.175)
1/03/2008
"See Appendix 5C of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures with References (1984) under
`Torture Stake,' 1977-8. The society has, of course, pointed out something useful by noting that stauros
does not necessarily mean `cross' but simply a pale or timber. But nothing demonstrates so clearly how
much their scholarship is affected by dogmatism than does this issue. There is a great deal of evidence from
early church fathers such as Justin Martyr that Christians in his day believed that Christ was put to death
on a cross, Roman writers such as Cicero state that Roman criminals were often executed on a cross, and
modern archaeology supports the theory that Jews in Jesus' day were crucified on a cross. (See Time, 18
January 1971, 64, 65.) Finally, by showing but one illustration from Justus Lipsius' De cruce libri tres - a
picture of a man impaled on a crux simplex or upright pale - on page 1578 of The New World Translation
of the Holy Scriptures with References, Watch Tower scholars falsely leave the impression that Lipsius
thought that Jesus was put to death in that way. In fact, Lipsius gives sixteen illustrations of impalement,
thirteen of which show stakes with some sort of cross member. Although there is no conclusive proof,
there is evidence that Christ died on a cross." (Penton, M.J., "Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of
Jehovah's Witnesses," [1985], University of Toronto Press: Toronto ON, Second edition, 1997, p.372.
Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"As far as the use of the divine name in the New Testament is concerned, that is, as Bruce Metzger has
rightly noted, a piece of `special pleading.' [Metzger, B.M, "The New World Translation of the Christian
Greek Scriptures," The Bible Translator, Vol. 15, July 1964; pp.150-153] There is not one ancient
Greek manuscript of any New Testament book which contains either the sacred tetragrammaton or four-
letter name of God in Hebrew or any other independent form of the divine name as it appears in either
the ancient Hebrew text of the Old Testament or a few manuscripts of the pre-Christian Greek
Septuagint version of the Old Testament. So, on the basis of the evidence - not conjecture - that we
have before us, the New World translators' vaunted `restoration' of the name Jehovah to the text of the
New Testament is nothing more than an interpolation." (Penton, M.J., "Apocalypse Delayed: The Story
of Jehovah's Witnesses," [1985], University of Toronto Press: Toronto ON, Second edition, 1997, p.175.
Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Cross. This word does not occur in the O. T., but crucifixion was common among various nations of
antiquity ... Cross is used in a figurative sense by Jesus (Mat. x. 38; xvi. 24). From the narrative of the
crucifixion it is evident that the cross was of wood (Col. ii. 14), and was heavy, but still not too much so to
be borne by a strong man (Mat. xxvii. 32; Mark xv. 21; Luke xxiii. 26; John xix. 17), and can scarcely, therefore,
have been one of the massive structures which some painters depict. It was raised from the earth either
before or after the victim had been affixed to it; probably, in most cases, before. Crosses are of three leading
types: one, generally called the St. Andrew's cross, like the letter X; another like the letter T : and the third of
the dagger form, t, with which we are so familiar. The cross of Christ was, probably, as artists believe, of the
last-named type, which more easily than the others allowed the name, title, or crime of the victim to be affixed
to the upper part (Mat. xxvii. 37; Mark xv. 26; Luke xxiii. 38; John xix. 19). Up to the death of Christ, and even
after, the cross was evidently as much a name of horror and loathing as is the gallows now (John xix. 31: 1
Cor. i. 23; Gal. iii. 13; Phil. ii. 8; Heb, xii. 2; xiii. 13), so that to bear the cross meant to incur great reproach and
obloquy; but after the crucifixion the more zealous followers of Jesus regarded the cross with wholly altered
feelings. Paul gloried in the cross of Christ (Gal. vi. 14), by which he meant the atonement resulting from his
crucifixion (Eph. ii. 16; Col. i. 20). The pre-Christian cross of one form or another was in use as a sacred
symbol among the Chaldeans, the Phoenicians, the Egyptians, and many other oriental nations. The
Spaniards in the 16th century found it also among the Indians of Mexico and Peru. But its symbolic,
teaching was quite different from that which we now associate with the cross." (Davis, J.D., "A Dictionary
of the Bible," [1898], Baker: Grand Rapids MI, Fourth edition, 1966, Fifteenth printing, p.154. Emphasis
original)
1/03/2008
"Cru-ci-fix'ion. The act or operation of fixing a victim to a cross for the purpose of capital punishment.
This was done either by tying his hands and feet to it, or in the more cruel way of fixing them to it by nails
driven through their fleshy portions. This method of punishment existed in many ancient nations. Alexander
the Great crucified a thou sand Tyrians. According to Josephus, Cyrus introduced into his edict for the
return of the Jews from Babylon a threat of crucifying anyone who attempted to prevent the missive from
being carried into execution (Antiq. xi. 1, 3; 4, 6). Darius the Persian threatened this death, apparently, to
those who refused obedience to his decrees (Ezra vi. 11). Antiochus Epiphanes crucified faithful Jews who
would not abandon their religion at his bidding (Ant. xii. 5,4), and Alexander Jannaeus (War i. 4, 6) and the
Pharisees crucified their enemies (War i. 5, 3). Among the Romans crucifixion was a penalty inflicted only on
slaves, or on freemen who had committed the most heinous crimes; the ordinary Roman citizen was
exempted from it by express legal enactment. The preliminary cruelties of scourging the victim (Mat. xxvii. 26:
Mark xv. 15; John xix. 1), and then, when his body was lacerated, compelling him to bear his cross (xix. 17),
were not rare (cp. the proverb, Mat. x. 38). Thus the Roman procurator Florus (War ii. 14, 9) and Titus, at
least on one occasion, had those scourged first who were afterwards to be crucified. If the victim was simply
tied to the cross, this was no injury sufficient to produce death, which did not take place till thirst and
hunger had done their work; and this was sometimes the case even when the hands and feet were pierced
by nails. If it was expedient on any ground to get rid of the victims before natural death had released them
from their tortures, the end was sometimes hastened by breaking their legs, as was done in the case of the
robbers crucified with Jesus (John xix. 31-33). Many Jews were crucified after Titus took Jerusalem (Life 75).
Constantine abolished punishment by crucifixion in the Roman empire." (Davis, J.D., "A Dictionary of the
Bible," [1898], Baker: Grand Rapids MI, Fourth edition, 1966, Fifteenth printing, p.155. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"CROSS (Gk. stauros; Lat. crux), CRUCIFIXION (cf. stauroo "crucify"). ... Use of an upright stake as
an instrument of torture and execution attained particular significance as the culmination of Christ's
persecution and thus as a symbol of his atonement for mankind. Crucifixion is first attested among the
Persians (cf. Herodotus Hist. i.128.2; iii. 132.2, 159.1), perhaps derived from the Assyrian practice of
impalement. It was later employed by the Greeks, especially Alexander the Great, and by the Carthaginians,
from whom the Romans adapted the practice as a punishment for slaves and non-citizens, and occasionally
for citizens guilty of treason. Although in the Old Testament the corpses of blasphemers or idolaters
punished by stoning might be hanged `on a tree' as further humiliation (Deut. 21:23), actual crucifixion was
not introduced in Palestine until Hellenistic times. The Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes crucified those
Jews who would not accept hellenization (Josephus Ant. xii. 240-41; cf. 1 Macc. 1:44-50), and the
Hasmonean Alexander Jannaeus thus executed eight hundred Pharisean rebels of the town of Bethome
(Josephus BJ i.4.6; Ant. xiii. 14.2-3). It was the crucifixion of some 3,600 Jews which precipitated the
Jewish revolt (A.D. 66; BJ ii. 14.9). Many Jews and Christians were martyred in this fashion until the
practice was abolished by Constantine ca. 337 in deference to Christian belief concerning Christ's death."
(Myers, A.C., ed., "Cross, Crucifixion," in "The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary," [1987], Eerdmans: Grand Rapids
MI, Reprinted, 2000, p.246. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Originally merely a stake on which the victim was tied or impaled, by Roman times the cross featured a
horizontal beam, placed either at the top of the vertical shaft (in the form of the Greek letter tau; St.
Anthony's cross) or slightly below the top (the traditional Latin cross). The later `Greek' cross comprised
vertical and horizontal bars of equal length; the X-shaped St. Andrew's cross also was employed later in
Roman times. Judging from first-century A.D. remains from a tomb near Jerusalem, it appears that the
victim's feet were pierced with a single nail which was then driven into a small olivewood board (to keep the
feet together) but not into the upright shaft itself. The forearms were nailed to the horizontal bar. A small
horizontal board was affixed to the cross at buttocks height to help support the body and prevent collapse,
thereby prolonging the suffering. One might agonize on the cross for several days before dying, apparently
of suffocation. Thirst was intense and the weight of the body produced inexorable pain; victims were
tormented by high fever and convulsions which racked their entire body. Occasionally the executioners
prompted death by breaking the victim's bones. As further humiliation for the victim and as a deterrent to
potential offenders, the person condemned to crucifixion was first flogged, then ordered to carry the
horizontal crossbeam to the place of execution, where it was hoisted onto the vertical pole. Accordingly,
Jesus carried his own crossbeam (John 19:17), though he was later relieved by Simon of Cyrene (Matt. 27:32
par. Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26)." (Myers, A.C., ed., "Cross, Crucifixion," in "The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary,"
[1987], Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, Reprinted, 2000, p.246)
1/03/2008
"The indignity of the crucifixion, for both the means of punishment (cf. Gal. 3:13) and the crimes with which
it was associated, was utter `folly' (1 Cor. 1:17-18), contrasting intensely with the significance of Christ's
death as atonement for all mankind (e.g., Eph. 2:16; Col. 2:14). The suffering of the cross is cited to symbolize
the self-denial which Jesus' followers must accept - their willingness to renounce their own needs and
desires (Matt. 10:38 par. Mark 8:34; Luke 9:23), even one's `old self ` (Rom. 6:6; Gal. 2:20)." (Myers, A.C., ed.,
"Cross, Crucifixion," in "The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary," [1987], Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, Reprinted,
2000, p.246)
1/03/2008
"FOR centuries multitudes have accepted the cross as a symbol of Christianity. But is it really? Many who
have sincerely believed so are quite surprised to learn that the cross is not at all unique to Christendom. On
the contrary, it has been widely used in non-Christian religions all over the world. For example, in the early
1500’s, as Hernán Cortés and his `Christian' army prepared to attack the Aztec Empire, they carried banners
proclaiming, `Let us follow the sign of the Holy Cross in true faith, for under this sign we shall conquer.'
They must have been surprised to find that their pagan enemies venerated a cross not unlike their own. The
book Great Religions of the World says: `Cortés and his followers recoiled from human sacrifices of the
Aztecs and what seemed like satanic parodies of Christianity: ... venerating crosslike symbols of wind and
rain gods.' In an editorial in the newspaper La Nación, writer José Alberto Furque points out that in the
second half of the 18th century, there began `a fiery and exciting debate among anthropologists and
archaeologists on the origins and meaning of the cruciform signs' they were finding across much of Central
and South America. Apparently some had been so eager to protect the status of the cross as a uniquely
`Christian' symbol that they propounded the theory that somehow the Americas had been evangelized
before Columbus’ landmark voyage! This farfetched notion had to be discarded as unfounded. In time,
further discoveries in the field put all such debate to rest. Furque notes: `In a work published in 1893 by the
Smithsonian Institution, it was established that the cross was already venerated ... long before the arrival of
the first Europeans in North America, which confirms the theory ... that such a symbol appeared in all
communities as part of cultic worship of the forces that originate life.' The Bible shows that Jesus was not
executed on a conventional cross at all but, rather, on a simple stake, or stau·ros'. This Greek word,
appearing at Matthew 27:40, basically means a simple upright beam or pole, such as those used in building
foundations. Hence, the cross never represented true Christianity. Jesus Christ identified the real symbol, or
`mark,' of true Christianity when he told his followers: `By this all will know that you are my disciples, if you
have love among yourselves.' - John 13:35." ("The Cross-Symbol of Christianity?," The Watchtower,
November 15, 1992. p.7)
1/03/2008
"CROSS, CRUCIFIXION. The Gk. word for 'cross' (stauros; verb stauroo; Lat. crux, crucifigo, `I
fasten to a cross') means primarily an upright stake or beam, and secondarily a stake used as an instrument
for punishment and execution. It is used in this latter sense in the NT. The noun occurs 28 times and the
verb 46. The crucifixion of live criminals did not occur in the OT (stauroo in the LXX of Est. 7:10 is the
Heb. tala, meaning `to hang'). Execution was by stoning. However, dead bodies were occasionally hung
on a tree as a warning (Dt. 21:22-23; Jos. 10:26). Such a body was regarded as accursed (hence Gal. 3:13) and
had to be removed and buried before night came (cf. Jn. 19:31). This practice accounts for the NT reference
to Christ's cross as a `tree' (Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29; 1 Pet. 2:24), a symbol of humiliation." (Torrance, J.B.,
"Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press,
Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.253. Emphasis original)
1/03/2008
"Crucifixion was practised by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians and later used extensively by the Romans.
Only slaves, provincials and the lowest types of criminals were crucified, but rarely Roman citizens. Thus
tradition, which says that Peter, like Jesus, was crucified, but Paul beheaded, is in line with ancient practice."
(Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary," [1962],
InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.253)
1/03/2008
"Apart from the single upright post (crux simplex) on which the victim was tied or impaled, there were
three types of cross. The crux commissa (St Anthony's cross) was shaped like a capital T, thought by
some to be derived from the symbol of the god Tammuz, the letter tau; the crux decussata (St Andrew's
cross) was shaped like the letter X; the crux immissa was the familiar two beams +, held by tradition to be
the shape of the cross on which our Lord died (Irenaeus, Haer. 2. 24. 4). This is strengthened by the
references in the four Gospels (Mt. 27:37; Mk. 15:26; Lk. 23:38; Jn. 19:19-22) to the title nailed to the cross of
Christ over his head." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible
Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.253)
1/03/2008
"After a criminal's condemnation, it was the custom for a victim to be scourged with the flagellum, a whip
with leather thongs, which in our Lord's case doubtless greatly weakened him and hastened eventual death.
He was then made to carry the cross-beam (patibulum) like a slave to the scene of his torture and death,
always outside the city, while a herald carried in front of him the `title', the written accusation. It was this
patibulum, not the whole cross, which Jesus was too weak to carry, and which was borne by Simon the
Cyrenian. The condemned man was stripped naked, laid on the ground with the cross-beam under his
shoulders, and his arms or his hands tied or nailed (Jn. 20:25) to it. This cross-bar was then lifted and
secured to the upright post, so that the victim's feet, which were then tied or nailed, were just clear of the
ground, not high up as so often depicted. The main weight of the body was usually borne by a projecting
peg (sedile), astride which the victim sat. There the condemned man was left to die of hunger and
exhaustion. Death was sometimes hastened by the crurifragium, breaking of the legs, as in the case of the
two thieves, but not done in our Lord's case, because he was already dead. However, a spear was thrust into
his side to make sure of death, so that the body could be removed, as the Jews demanded, before the
sabbath (Jn. 19:31ff.)." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible
Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.253)
1/03/2008
"The method of crucifixion seems to have varied in different parts of the Roman empire. Secular writers of
the time shrink from giving detailed accounts of this most cruel and degrading of all forms of punishment.
But new light has been thrown on the subject by archaeological work in Judaea. In the summer of 1968 a
team of archaeologists under V. Tzaferis discovered four Jewish tombs at Giv'at ha-Mivtar (Ras el-Masaref),
Ammunition Hill, near Jerusalem, where there was an ossuary containing the only extant bones of a (young)
crucified man, dating from probably between AD 7 and AD 66, judging from Herodian pottery found there.
The name Jehohanan is incised. Thorough research has been made into the causes and nature of his death
and may throw considerable light on our Lord's form of death." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in
Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second
edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, pp.253-254)
1/03/2008
"The young man's arms (not his hands) were nailed to the patibulum, the cross-beam, which might
indicate that Lk. 24:39; Jn. 20:20, 25, 27 should be translated `arms'. The weight of the body was probably
borne by a plank (sedecula) nailed to the simplex, the upright beam, as a support for the buttocks. The
legs had been bent at the knees and twisted back so that the calves were parallel to the patibulum or
cross-bar, with the ankles under the buttocks. One iron nail (still in situ) had been driven through both his
heels together, with his right foot above the left. A fragment shows that the cross was of olive wood. His
legs had both been broken, presumably by a forcible blow, like those of Jesus' two companions in Jn. 19:32.
If Jesus died in similar fashion, then his legs were not fully extended as in traditional Christian art. His
contorted leg muscles would then have probably caused severe pain with spasmodic contractions and rigid
cramps. This could have contributed to the shortened time of his death in 6 hours, hastened doubtless by
the earlier scourging." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible
Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.254)
1/03/2008
"Contemporary writers describe it as a most painful form of death. The Gospels, however, give no detailed
description of our Lord's physical sufferings, but simply and reverently say `they crucified him'. According
to Mt. 27:34, our Lord refused any form of alleviation for his sufferings, doubtless that he might preserve
clarity of mind to the end, in doing his Father's will. Hence the fact that he was able to comfort the dying
thief, and pronounce the rest of the seven wonderful words from the cross." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross,
Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK,
Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.254)
1/03/2008
"The NT writers' interest in the cross is neither archaeological nor historical, but Christological. They are
concerned with the eternal, cosmic, soteriological significance of what happened once for all in the death of
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, on the cross. Theologically, the word `cross' was used as a summary
description of the gospel of salvation, that Jesus Christ `died for our sins'. So the `preaching of the gospel'
is `the word of the cross', `the preaching of Christ crucified' (1 Cor. 1:17ff.). So the apostle glories `in the
cross of our Lord Jesus Christ', and speaks of suffering persecution `for the cross of Christ'. Clearly the
word `cross' here stands for the whole glad announcement of our redemption through the atoning death of
Jesus Christ." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary,"
[1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted, 1988, p.254)
1/03/2008
"`The word of the cross' is also `the word of reconciliation' (2 Cor. 5:19). This theme emerges clearly in the
Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians. It is `through the cross' that God has reconciled Jews and
Gentiles, abolishing the middle wall of partition, the law of commandments (Eph. 2:14-16). It is `by the blood
of his cross' that God has made peace, in reconciling `all things to himself' (Col. 1:20ff.). This reconciliation is
at once personal and cosmic. It comes because Christ has set aside the bond which stood against us with its
legal demands, `nailing it to the cross' (Col. 2:14)." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et
al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted,
1988, p.254)
1/03/2008
"The cross, in the NT, is a symbol of shame and humiliation, as well as of God's wisdom and glory revealed
through it. Rome used it not only as an instrument of torture and execution but also as a shameful pillory
reserved for the worst and lowest. To the Jews it was a sign of being accursed (Dt. 21:23; Gal. 3:13): This
was the death Jesus died, and for which the crowd clamoured. He `endured the cross, despising the shame'
(Heb. 12:2). The lowest rung in the ladder of our Lord's humiliation was that he endured `even death on a
cross' (Phil. 2:8). For this reason it was a `stumbling block' to the Jews (1 Cor. 1:23; (f. Gal. 5:11). The
shameful spectacle of a victim carrying a patibulum was so familiar to his hearers that Jesus three times
spoke of the road of discipleship as that of cross-bearing (Mt. 10:38; Mk. 8:34; Lk. 14:27). Further, the cross
is the symbol of our union with Christ, not simply in virtue of our following his example, but in virtue of what
he has done for us and in us. In his substitutionary death for us on the cross, we died `in him' (cf. 2 Cor.
5:14), and `our old man is crucified with him', that by his indwelling Spirit we might walk in newness of life
(Rom. 6:4ff.; Gal. 2:20; 5:24ff.; 6:14), abiding `in him'." (Torrance, J.B., "Cross, Crucifixion," in Douglas, J.D., et
al., eds., "New Bible Dictionary," [1962], InterVarsity Press, Leicester UK, Second edition, 1982, Reprinted,
1988, p.254)
1/03/2008
"Despite the fact that Rutherford depicted Jesus on the cross in several of his books, he would in 1936
begin to change his position to what would become the current Watchtower Society position - that of the
torture stake theory. This theory says that Jesus did not die on a cross but rather on a single upright post,
hand over hand with a single nail through both hands. In his book Riches, Rutherford wrote, `The death
of the perfect man Jesus would, in any manner inflicted, meet the requirements of the law, because death
was the penalty inflicted upon Adam. Why, then, was Jesus crucified? Jesus was crucified, not on a cross of
wood, such as is exhibited in many images and pictures, and which images are made and exhibited by men;
Jesus was crucified by nailing his body to a tree' (p. 27). This torture stake theory, started by Rutherford,
would be clarified over the next several decades. In 1972, the Watchtower wrote an article discussing
Christian cross came to be accepted by professed Christians. After being led to adopt the cross as a sacred
symbol, professed Christians began depicting the body of one crucified thereon.' They continue with `No
Biblical evidence even intimates that Jesus died on a cross." (Awake!, 8 November 1972, p. 28)."
("Jehovah's Witnesses and the Cross," Watchman Expositor, 23 May 2007.
http://www.watchman.org/jw/crossjw.htm)
1/03/2008
"No Biblical evidence even intimates that Jesus died on a cross. Regarding the Greek word stau·ros'
(translated `cross' in numerous translations), A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Original Greek Words
with their Precise Meanings for English Readers states: `STAUROS .... . denotes, primarily, an upright pale
or stake. On such malefactors were nailed for execution.' Similarly, the book The Non-Christian Cross
observes: `There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament,
which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of
Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros [pole or stake]; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one
piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross.'" ("Use of the Cross," Awake!, 8
November 1972, p. 28)
2/03/2008
"TORTURE STAKE. An instrument such as that on which Jesus Christ met death by impalement. (Matt.
27:32-40; Mark 15:21-30; Luke 23:26; John 19:17-19, 25) In classical Greek the word (stau ros') rendered
`torture stake' in the New World Translation primarily denotes an upright stake or pole, and there is no
evidence that the writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures used it to designate a stake with a crossbeam."
(Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Aid to Bible Understanding," [1969], Watchtower Bible & Tract
Society: Brooklyn NY, Second edition, 1971, pp.1608-1609. Emphasis original)
2/03/2008
"In the eyes of the Jews a man was a sinner and accursed in the sight of God if he died upon the cross,
because it was written in the law: `Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree.' (Deuteronomy 21:23;
Galatians 3:13) ... Suffering opposition from sinners, the representatives of the enemy, pictured as outside
the camp, was the great cross of suffering which was actually fulfilled and completed when Jesus was
crucified as a sinner. The things which Jesus suffered therefore were these, to wit: the reproach cast upon
his Father's name; the reproach of himself because of his faithful service to his Father; the contradiction of
himself by sinners; and being denounced as a sinner and then dying as a sinner upon the cross."
(Rutherford, J.F., "Creation," International Bible Students Association: Brooklyn NY, 1927, pp.246-247)
2/03/2008
"stauros, stow-ros'; ... a stake or post (as set upright), i.e. (spec.) a pole or cross (as an instrument of capital
punishment); fig. exposure to death, i.e. self-denial; by impl. the atonement of Christ:--cross." ("Parson's
Hebrew-Greek Dictionary," QuickVerse 2.0, 1991)
2/03/2008
"xulon, xoo'-lon ... timber (as fuel or material); by impl. a stick, club or tree or other wooden article or
substance:-staff, stocks, tree, wood." ("Parson's Hebrew-Greek Dictionary," QuickVerse 2.0, 1991)
3/03/2008
"Cross (Gr. stauros, a stake; Lat. crux). ... Form. The cross which was used as an instrument of
death (see Crucifixion) was either a plain vertical stake to which the victim was fastened, with the hands tied
or nailed above the head, or such a stake provided with a crossbar, to which the victim was fastened with
the arms outstretched. Of this latter kind three varieties were known, so that there were four forms of the
cross: (1) Simple (Lat. simplex), I ; (2) St. Andrew's (decussata), X; (3) St. Anthony's (commissa), T;
(4) The Latin (immissa), +." (Unger, M.F., "Cross," in "Unger's Bible Dictionary," [1957], Moody Press:
Chicago IL, Third edition, 1966, Fifteenth printing, 1969, p.227. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Emblem. That the cross was widely known in pre-Christian times as an emblem has been clearly shown
by independent investigators. Indeed, it was a well-known heathen sign. The vestments of the priests of
Horus, the Egyptian god of light, are marked + . At Thebes, in the tombs of the kings, royal cows are
represented plowing, a calf playing in front. Each animal has a + marked in several places on it. Rassam
found buildings at Nineveh marked with the Maltese cross. Osiris, as well as Jupiter Ammon, had for a
monogram a + . The cross is found marked on Phoenician monuments at an early date." (Unger, M.F.,
"Cross," in "Unger's Bible Dictionary," [1957], Moody Press: Chicago IL, Third edition, 1966, Fifteenth
printing, 1969, p.227. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"In Christian times the cross, from being in itself the most vile and repulsive of objects, became in the minds
of believers the symbol of all that is holy and precious. As Christ is the `wisdom of God and the power of
God' [1Cor 1:24] unto salvation, it is but natural that those who experience the power of this salvation
should glory in the cross. The exact time of its adoption as a Christian emblem is unknown. In the pre-
Constantine period the sign of the cross seems to have been quite generally recognized by primitive
Christians. They appear to have contemplated it only as a symbol, without any miraculous energy, and
associated it with that which was hopeful and joyous. On the tombstones of the early Christians the cross
was the emblem of victory and hope. It was only after superstition took the place of true spiritual devotion
that the figure of the cross was used or borne about as a sacred charm." (Unger, M.F., "Cross," in "Unger's
Bible Dictionary," [1957], Moody Press: Chicago IL, Third edition, 1966, Fifteenth printing, 1969, p.227)
3/03/2008
"Figurative. The cross is used in Scripture, in a general way, for what is painful and mortifying to the flesh
(Matt. 16:24). After the resurrection of our Lord the cross is spoken of as the representative of his whole
sufferings from his birth to his death (Eph. 2:16; Heb. 12:2), and for the whole doctrines of the Gospel (I Cor.
1:18; Gal. 6:14).; while the opposers of the Gospel were spoken of as enemies of the cross (Phil. 3:18). "The
cross of Christ" (I Cor. 1 :17) represents that Christ was crucified for man, and thereby procured his
salvation." (Unger, M.F., "Cross," in "Unger's Bible Dictionary," [1957], Moody Press: Chicago IL, Third
edition, 1966, Fifteenth printing, 1969, p.228. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Crucifixion. ... History. This form of punishment was in use among the Egyptians (Gen. 40:19), the
Carthaginians, the Persians (Esth. 7:10), the Assyrians, Scythians, Indians, Germans, and from the earliest
times among the Greeks and Romans. After the conquest of Tyre, Alexander the Great ordered two thousand
Tyrians to be crucified as punishment for the resistance which that city made. Crucifixion was abolished by
Constantine, probably toward the end of his reign, owing, doubtless, to his increasing reverence for the
cross. Punishment by the cross was confined to slaves or to malefactors of the worst class. Exemption from
it was the privilege of Roman citizenship. ... Among the Jews. Whether this mode of execution was known
to the ancient Jews is a matter of dispute. The Hebrew words apparently alluding to crucifixion are talah
and yaqa`, generally rendered in the A.V. `to hang' (Num. 25:4; Deut. 21:22; II Sam. 18:10). The Jewish
account of the matter is that the exposure of the body tied to a stake by the hands took place after death.
The placing of the head on an upright pole has been called crucifixion. Crucifixion after death was not
rare, the victim being first killed in mercy. The Jews probably borrowed this punishment from the Romans.
Among the Jews, as well as among the Romans, crucifixion was considered the most horrible form of death;
and to a Jew it would seem the more horrible from the curse, `He that is hanged is accursed of God' (Dent.
21:23). Our Lord was condemned to it by the popular cry of the Jews (Matt. 27:23) on the charge of sedition
against Caesar (Luke 23:21-23)." (Unger, M.F., "Crucifixion," in "Unger's Bible Dictionary," [1957], Moody
Press: Chicago IL, Third edition, 1966, Fifteenth printing, 1969, p.229. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Cross, Crucifixion. The Greek word for `cross;' stauros, literally refers to an upright, pointed stake or
pale. The word xylon is usually `wood' or `tree.' In the NT and in some other literature of the time both
frequently refer to a particularly cruel and degrading form of capital punishment known as crucifixion. In
both canonical and later Christian literature `cross' and `crucifixion' take on a particularly important
significance because of their connection with the death of Jesus and his expectations of his disciples. Any
understanding of crucifixion in the ancient world must include the facts related to the act itself, its effect
upon the victim, and the sociocultural implications attached to it." (Scott, J.J., Jr, "Cross, Crucifixion," in
Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker: Grand Rapids MI, Seventh Printing,
1990, p.286. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Method of Crucifixion. Crucifixion involved elevating the condemned upon a pole, some form of frame or
scaffolding, or a natural tree, thus exposing him to public view and derision. In many cases the individual
was put to death through some other means and all or a part of the body (usually the head) then elevated. In
other circumstances it became the actual means of execution. Because of both the effect of crucifixion upon
the body and the lengthy period which usually elapsed before death, it represented the most painful, cruel,
and barbaric form of execution. Its roots are lost in history In one form or another it is known to have been
practiced by many groups (such as the Indians, Scythians, Celts, Germani, Britanni, and Taurians) but is
most closely associated with the Persians, Carthaginians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and especially the Romans.
Some evidence suggests that it may have been associated with religious human sacrifice as well as a means
of punishment. Earlier forms probably involved impaling the condemned on a single pole or suspending him
by wedging the head between a `Y' at one end of the implement." (Scott, J.J., Jr, "Cross, Crucifixion," in
Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker: Grand Rapids MI, Seventh Printing,
1990, pp.286-287. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"By NT times there seem to have been several different forms of `crosses' commonly used by the Romans.
In addition to the single pole (crux simplex), most involved the use of at least two separate pieces of wood
to construct a frame. However, crucifixion gave executioners opportunity to use their most cruel and sadistic
creativity; victims were occasionally hung in grotesque positions by a variety of means. The two cross
forms most likely used for the execution of Jesus are the St. Anthony's cross (crux commissa), shaped like
a `T,' or the Latin cross (crux immissa),.on which the vertical piece rises above both the horizontal cross-
bar (patibulum) and the head of the victim; the statement in Matt. 27:37 (cf. Luke 23:38) that the
inscription was placed `over his head' and most ancient tradition favor the latter." (Scott, J.J., Jr, "Cross,
Crucifixion," in Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker: Grand Rapids MI,
Seventh Printing, 1990, p.287)
3/03/2008
"Detailed descriptions of crucifixion are few; writers seem to have avoided the subject. Recent
archaeological discoveries, including skeletal remains of a crucifixion in first century Palestine (at Giv'at ha-
Mivtar in Jerusalem), have added considerably to knowledge of the act. It seems that the Gospel accounts of
the death of Jesus describe a standard Roman procedure for crucifixion. After the pronouncement of
sentence, the condemned was required to carry the horizontal piece to the place of execution, always
outside the city. The leader of the four-man execution squad led the procession bearing a sign detailing the
reason for the execution. There the victim was flogged (this seems to have preceded condemnation in the
case of Jesus-possibly to elicit sympathy). The victim's outstretched arms were affixed to the cross-bar by
either nails or ropes. This was then raised and secured to the perpendicular pole (which in some areas may
have been left in place permanently, both for convenience and as a warning). A small board or peg may have
been provided as sort of a seat to bear some of the weight of the condemned (this actually may have
prolonged suffering by prohibiting suffocation). The feet were then secured in a manner forcing the knees
into a bent position. Contrary to popular contemporary opinion, crosses were not high; the feet were
probably only a few inches above the ground. The sign describing the accusation was secured to the cross.
Death usually came slowly; it was not unusual for persons to survive for days on the cross. Exposure,
disease, hunger, shock, and exhaustion were the usual immediate causes of death. Occasionally death was
`mercifully' hastened by breaking the legs of the condemned. In Jesus' case death came much more swiftly
than usual. A spear was thrust into his side to assure he was really dead before the body was removed
(John 19: 31-37). Bodies of the crucified were often left unburied and eaten by carnivorous birds and beasts,
thus adding to the disgrace." (Scott, J.J., Jr, "Cross, Crucifixion," in Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical
Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker: Grand Rapids MI, Seventh Printing, 1990, p.287)
3/03/2008
"The social stigma and disgrace associated with crucifixion in the ancient world can hardly be overstated. It
was usually reserved for slaves, criminals of the worst sort from the lowest levels of society, military
deserters, and especially traitors. In only rare cases were Roman citizens, no matter what their crime,
crucified. Among the Jews it carried an additional stigma. Deut. 21:23, `A hanged man is accursed by God,'
was understood to mean that the very method of death brought a divine curse upon the crucified. Thus, the
idea of a crucified Messiah posed a special problem for such Jews as Paul (cf. Gal. 3:13; I Cor. 1:27-29)."
(Scott, J.J., Jr, "Cross, Crucifixion," in Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker:
Grand Rapids MI, Seventh Printing, 1990, p.287)
3/03/2008
"Significance of the Cross. NT writers assume the historicity of the crucifixion of Jesus and focus their
attention upon its significance. In it they understand that he, `who was in the form of God, did not consider
equality with God a thing to be grasped at,' was willing to `humble himself,' take `on the form of a servant;'
and endure `even the death on the cross' (Phil. 2:6-8). This demonstrates the ultimate of humiliation and
degradation. Yet, they affirm, the crucifixion of Jesus, the Messiah (Christ), was the will and act of God with
eternal and cosmic significance. At the simplest level, the crucifixion of Jesus was the means by which God
provided salvation, the forgiveness of sins (cf. I Cor. 15:3). Christ crucified becomes the summary of the
Christian message (I Cor. 2:2). The cross of Jesus, the beloved Son of God, is the supreme demonstration of
the love God has for sinful man (cf. John 3:16; 15:16). In Jesus' death God deals concretely with the sin and
guilt which offends his holiness and separates man from his Creator. Because of the cross God becomes
both the righteous and just Judge and, at the same time, the one who makes forgiveness available and
justifies believers (cf. Rom. 3:26). The condemning legal demands set against man have been `canceled;'
nailed to the Cross (Col. 2:14). The word of the cross is God's word of reconciliation (II Cor. 5:19)." (Scott,
J.J., Jr, "Cross, Crucifixion," in Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker: Grand
Rapids MI, Seventh Printing, 1990, p.287. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"The cross is also the symbol of discipleship. To first century Palestinians, who often witnessed the
condemned carrying the crossbar to the site of their final torture, Jesus' word, `If any man will come after me,
let him take up his cross and follow me' (Mark 8:34; cf. Matt. 10:38; Luke 14:27), must have come with a
jolting, graphic impact. Jesus insists that the humiliation and suffering that culminated in his crucifixion were
to characterize the experience of his followers. `It is,' he says, `for the disciple to be like his teacher' (Matt.
10:24). Crucifixion becomes a part of the identification between Christ and the believer who is `crucified with
Christ' (Gal. 2:20). The negative side of the characteristics of the new life of the Christian consists in having
`crucified' sinful natures and desires (Gal. 5:24). When understood in its historical, social context, Paul's
statement that the proclamation of Christ crucified is a `stumbling block' or `scandal' (skandalon) to the
Jews and "foolishness" (moria) to the Gentiles is both logical and clear. Yet for Christians it remains an
act and demonstration `of the power and wisdom of God' (I Cor. 1:23-24)."(Scott, J.J., Jr, "Cross, Crucifixion,"
in Elwell, W.A., ed., "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology," [1984], Baker: Grand Rapids MI, Seventh
Printing, 1990, p.288)
3/03/2008
"The truth will not allow for all the different kinds of religious doctrine in the world. For example, either
humans have a soul that survives the death of the body or they do not. Either the earth will last forever or it
will not. Either God will bring wickedness to an end or he will not. These and many other beliefs are either
right or wrong. There cannot be two sets of truth when one does not agree with the other. One or the other
is true, but not both. Sincerely believing something, and practicing that belief, will not make it right if it really
is wrong. ... How should you feel if proof is given that what you believe is wrong? For example, say that you
were in a car, traveling for the first time to a certain place. You have a road map, but you have not taken time
to check it carefully. Someone has told you the road to take. You trust him, sincerely believing that the way
he has directed you is correct. But suppose it is not. What if someone points out the error? What if he, by
referring to your own map, shows that you are on the wrong road? Would pride or stubbornness prevent
you from admitting that you are on the wrong road? Well, then, if you learn from an examination of your
Bible that you are traveling a wrong religious road, be willing to change. Avoid the broad road to
destruction; get on the narrow road to life!" (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "You Can Live Forever in
Paradise on Earth," [1982], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Second edition,
1989, pp.32-33)
3/03/2008
"The Romans, who seem to have got hold of the idea of crucifixion from the Phoenicians in the Punic Wars,
became expert at this most grisly method of execution. They reserved it, however, for the humiliores, the
lower classes in the Empire. And in particular it was what Cicero called a servile supplicium: It was the
penalty for slaves. Apart from them you might find a deserting soldier being crucified, or someone who had
interfered with the Vestal Virgins. This `most cruel and most terrible punishment' (Cicero, In Verrem,
2.5.165 [Cicero, "Political Speeches," Oxford University Press: Oxford 2008]) was a death reserved for the
lowest of the low. Cicero maintained that it ought not even to be discussed by Romans: it was too
degrading. Yet this was the death that became the most famous in history." (Green, E.M.B., "The Empty
Cross of Jesus," The Jesus Library, Hodder & Stoughton: London, 1984, p.21)
3/03/2008
"There were various ways of doing it. The most basic was to hang the man or impale him on a stake (crux
simplex). More frequently there was a crossbeam (patibulum) across the stipes, or upright. It could be
fixed to the top of the upright, making the shape of a capital T (crux commissa), and the Christian writers
of the second century made considerable play with that fact. More often it was fixed a third of the way from
the top, thus forming the Latin cross (crux inmissa), and it is widely believed that Jesus was executed on a
cross of this shape. The third variety was what we know as the St. Andrew's cross, shaped like a capital X
(crux decussata) on which the victim could be stretched either the right way up or upside down." (Green,
E.M.B., "The Empty Cross of Jesus," The Jesus Library, Hodder & Stoughton: London, 1984, pp.21-22)
3/03/2008
"The condemned man was invariably scourged, and men were known to die under that punishment alone, so
severe were the wounds inflicted by this cruel cat-o'-nine-tails inset with pieces of metal. It is possible that
Jesus suffered this punishment both from the Jewish and from the Roman authorities (Matthew 26: 67f; John
19: 1). Thereafter, he had to carry the patibulum of his cross, and was led out under armed guard to die.
There was a variety of ways of fixing the condemned man on the cross. He might have his wrists tied or
nailed to the patibulum and then be hauled by ropes up on to the stipes which was already firmly fixed
in the ground. More commonly the cross was put together on the ground, the condemned man bound or
nailed to it, and the whole thing then erected and dropped into a pit that had been prepared to receive it. The
degradation of the criminal was completed by his very clothes being taken from him. He was exposed naked
on the cross. The cause of his being there was written above his head and fixed to the cross; and he was left
there to die slowly in intense agony from exhaustion, thirst, and wounds. The criminal had, of course, no
recourse but to curse, spit and urinate on his tormentors. Often the kindlier execution squads would offer a
draught of drugged wine before nailing the man up. This went some small way towards dulling the pain.
And sometimes a rough sedile or saddle was fixed to the cross. This offered support to the crucified man,
and often prolonged his life. By raising himself up on his lacerated feet and the saddle he could give some
respite to heart and lungs which were put under immense strain by the position of crucifixion. When the
torture was deemed to have gone on long enough, or in order to ensure that the man was dead, the soldiers
would perform the crurifragium, or breaking of the legs. This meant that the man, if still alive, could no
longer hoist himself and would soon expire." (Green, E.M.B., "The Empty Cross of Jesus," The Jesus
Library, Hodder & Stoughton: London, 1984, p.22)
3/03/2008
"The physical effects of crucifixion were appalling. Of all deaths it is the most lingering and agonising. The
unnatural position of the body made every movement a pain. The suspension of the whole body on jagged
iron nails (one dating from A.D. 50 has recently been discovered in Jerusalem) driven through the most
sensitive nerve centres of the wrists and ankles, ensured constant exquisite torture. The wounds of the nails
and the weals from the lash soon became inflamed and even gangrenous. The body's position hindered
circulation and caused indescribable pain in the chest. A raging thirst set in, brought on by the burning sun.
The flies were thick around the victim. The agony of crucifixion was terrible beyond words. But it was not
uncommon. In the unrest that had followed the death of Herod the Great in 4 B.C. Varus, the Roman general,
had crucified 2,000 men and lined the road from Sepphoris in Galilee with them. Jesus had certainly heard of
this. He had probably seen crucifixions. His execution was one among many, in that barbarous age." (Green,
E.M.B., "The Empty Cross of Jesus," The Jesus Library, Hodder & Stoughton: London, 1984, p.22)
3/03/2008
"Christianity, then, is no exception in having a visual symbol. The cross was not its earliest, however.
Because of the wild accusations which were levelled against Christians, and the persecution to which they
were exposed, they `had to be very circumspect and to avoid flaunting their religion. Thus the cross, now
the universal symbol of Christianity, was at first avoided, not only for its direct association with Christ, but
for its shameful association with the execution of a common criminal also'. [Gough, M., "Origins of Christian
Art," Thames & Hudson: London, 1973, p.18] So on the walls and ceilings of the catacombs (underground
burial-places outside Rome, where the persecuted Christians probably hid), the earliest Christian motifs
seem to have been either non-committal paintings of a peacock (supposed to symbolize immortality), a dove,
the athlete's victory palm or, in particular, a fish. Only the initiated would know, and nobody else could
guess, that ichthys (`fish') was an acronym for Iesus Christos Theou Huios Soter (`Jesus Christ, Son of
God, Saviour'). But it did not remain the Christian sign, doubtless because the association between Jesus
and a fish was purely acronymic (a fortuitous arrangement of letters) and had no visual significance.
Somewhat later, probably during the second century, the persecuted Christians seem to have preferred to
paint biblical themes like Noah's ark, Abraham killing the ram instead of Isaac, Daniel in the lions' den, his
three friends in the fiery furnace, Jonah being disgorged by the fish, some baptisms, a shepherd carrying a
lamb, the healing of the paralytic and the raising of Lazarus. All these were symbolic of Christ's redemption,
while not being in themselves incriminating, since only the instructed would have been able to interpret their
meaning. In addition, the Chi-Rho monogram (the first two letters of the Greek word Christos) was a popular
cryptogram, often in the form of a cross, and sometimes with a lamb standing before it, or with a dove."
(Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, pp.20-21)
3/03/2008
"A universally acceptable Christian emblem would obviously need to speak of Jesus Christ, but there was a
wide range of possibilities. ... But instead the chosen symbol came to be a simple cross. Its two bars were
already a cosmic symbol from remote antiquity of the axis between heaven and earth. But its choice by
Christians had a more specific explanation. They wished to commemorate as central to their understanding
of Jesus neither his birth nor his youth, neither his teaching nor his service, neither his resurrection nor his
reign, nor his gift of the Spirit, but his death, his crucifixion. The crucifix (that is, a cross to which a figure of
Christ is attached) does not appear to have been used before the sixth century." (Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross
of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, p.21)
3/03/2008
"It seems certain that, at least from the second century onwards, Christians not only drew, painted and
engraved the cross as a pictorial symbol of their faith, but also made the sign of the cross on themselves or
others. One of the first witnesses to this practice was Tertullian, the North African lawyer-theologian who
flourished about AD 200. He wrote: `At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when
we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch,
on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign [the cross]. [Tertullian,
De Corona, in Roberts, A. & Donaldson, J., eds., "The Ante-Nicene Fathers: Translations of the Writings
of the Fathers down to A.D. 325: Volume III: Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian," Eerdmans: Grand
Rapids MI 1973, pp.93-103, p.94]" (Stott, J.R.W., "The
Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, pp.21-22)
3/03/2008
"Hippolytus, the scholar-presbyter of Rome, is a particularly interesting witness, because he is known to
have been `an avowed reactionary who in his own generation stood for the past rather than the future'. His
famous treatise The Apostolic Tradition (c. AD 215) `claims explicitly to be recording only the forms and
models of rites already traditional and customs already long- established, and to be written in
deliberate protest against innovations'. [Dix, G., ed., "Apostolic Tradition of St. Hippolytus," SPCK: London,
1937, p. xi] When he describes certain `church observances', therefore, we may be sure that they were
already being practised a generation or more previously. He mentions that the sign of the cross was used by
the bishop when anointing the candidate's forehead at Confirmation, and he recommends it in private prayer:
'imitate him (Christ) always, by signing thy forehead sincerely: for this is the sign of his passion.' It is also,
he adds, a protection against evil: `When tempted, always reverently seal thy forehead with the sign of the
cross. For this sign of the passion is displayed and made manifest against the devil if thou makest it in faith,
not in order that thou mayest be seen of men, but by thy knowledge putting it forth as a shield.' [Ibid., pp.68-
69] There is no need for us to dismiss this habit as superstitious. In origin at least, the sign of the cross was
intended to identify and indeed sanctify each act as belonging to Christ." (Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross of
Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, pp.22-23. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"The Christians' choice of a cross as the symbol of their faith is the more surprising when we remember the
horror with which crucifixion was regarded in the ancient world. We can understand why Paul's `message of
the cross' was to many of his listeners `foolishness', even `madness' (1 Cor. 1:18, 23). How could any sane
person worship as a god a dead man who had been justly condemned as a criminal and subjected to the
most humiliating form of execution? This combination of death, crime and shame put him beyond the pale of
respect, let alone of worship. [Hengel, M., "Crucifixion," Fortress Press: Philadelphia PA, 1977, pp.1-10]
Crucifixion seems to have been invented by `barbarians' on the edge of the known world, and taken over
from them by both Greeks and Romans. It is probably the most cruel method of execution ever practised, for
it deliberately delayed death until maximum torture had been inflicted. The victim could suffer for days
before dying." (Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, pp.23-24)
3/03/2008
"When the Romans adopted it [crucifixion], they reserved it for criminals convicted of murder, rebellion or
armed robbery, provided that they were also slaves, foreigners or other non-persons. The Jews were
therefore outraged when the Roman general Varus crucified 2,000 of their compatriots in 4 B.C, and when
during the siege of Jerusalem the general Titus crucified so many fugitives from the city that neither `space
... for the crosses, nor crosses for the bodies' could be found. [Josephus, Antiquities, xvii.10.10; Jewish
War, V.xi.1] Roman citizens were exempt from crucifixion, except in extreme cases of treason. Cicero in one
of his speeches condemned it as crudelissimum taeterrimumque supplicium, `a most cruel and disgusting
punishment'. [Cicero, Against Verres, II.v.64, para. 165] A little later he declared: `To bind a Roman citizen
is a crime, to flog him is an abomination, to kill him is almost an act of murder: to crucify him is - What? There
is no fitting word that can possibly describe so horrible a deed.' [Ibid., II.v.66, para. 170] Cicero was even
more explicit in his successful defence in 63 BC of the elderly senator Gaius Rabirius who had been charged
with murder: `the very word "cross" should be far removed not only from the person of a Roman citizen, but
from his thoughts, his eyes and his ears. For it is not only the actual occurrence of these things (sc. the
procedures of crucifixion) or the endurance of them, but liability to them, the expectation, indeed the mere
mention of them, that is unworthy of a Roman citizen and a free man.' [Cicero, In Defence of Rabirius,
V.16, p.467]" (Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, p.24)
3/03/2008
"If the Romans regarded crucifixion with horror, so did the Jews, though for a different reason. They made
no distinction between a `tree' and a `cross', and so between a hanging and a crucifixion. They therefore
automatically applied to crucified criminals the terrible statement of the law that `anyone who is hung on a
tree is under God's curse' (Dt. 21:23). They could not bring themselves to believe that God's Messiah would
die under his curse, strung up on a tree. As Trypho the Jew put it to Justin the Christian apologist, who
engaged him in dialogue: `I am exceedingly incredulous on this point.' [Justin Martyr, Dialogue with
Trypho a Jew, Ch. lxxxix]" (Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986,
p.24)
3/03/2008
"So then, whether their background was Roman or Jewish or both, the early enemies of Christianity lost no
opportunity to ridicule the claim that God's anointed and man's Saviour ended his life on a cross. The idea
was crazy. This is well illustrated by a graffito from the second century, discovered on the Palatine Hill in
Rome, on the wall of a house considered by some scholars to have been used as a school for imperial pages.
It is the first surviving picture of the crucifixion, and is a caricature. A crude drawing depicts, stretched on a
cross, a man with the head of a donkey. To the left stands another man, with one arm raised in worship.
Unevenly scribbled underneath are the words ALEXAMENOS CEBETE (sc. sebete) THEON,
`Alexamenos worships God'. The cartoon is now in the Kircherian Museum in Rome. Whatever the origin of
the accusation of donkey-worship (which was attributed to both Jews and Christians), it was the concept of
worshipping a crucified man which was being held up to derision. One detects the same note of scorn in
Lucian of Samosata, the second-century pagan satirist. In The Passing of Peregrinus (a fictitious
Christian convert whom he portrays as a charlatan) he lampoons Christians as `worshipping that crucified
sophist himself and living under his laws' (p. 15)." (Stott, J.R.W., "The Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press:
Leicester UK, 1986, p.24)
3/03/2008
"The Romans had made crucifixion a common sight in all their colonized provinces, and Palestine was no
exception. Every rebel condemned to crucifixion was compelled to carry his cross, or at least the
patibulum (the cross beam), to the scene of his execution. Plutarch wrote that `every criminal condemned
to death bears his cross on his back'. [Plutarch, "On the Delays of Divine Vengeance," Moralia, 554 A/B]
So John wrote of Jesus that `carrying his own cross, he went out to The Place of the Skull' (19:17)." (Stott,
J.R.W., "The Cross of Christ," Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 1986, p.279)
3/03/2008
"JEHOVAH'S Witnesses say Jesus wasn't crucified--executed, yes, but not crucified, because that word
implies he was nailed to a cross. He was put to death on a torture stake, they say, not on a cross ... The
Watchtower asserts that `In classical Greek the word stauros, rendered "torture stake" in the New World
Translation [produced by the Watchtower], primarily denotes an upright stake or pole, and there is no
evidence that the writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures used it to designate a stake with a crossbeam. ...
There is not a single sentence, in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which in the
original Greek bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was
other than an ordinary stauros, much less to the effect that it consisted not of one piece of timber, but of
two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross.' ["Reasoning from the Scriptures," Watchtower Bible &
Tract Society, Second edition, 1989, pp.89-90]" (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol.
2, No. 5, October 1991. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Jehovah's Witnesses insist stauros can mean only stake. They conclude that, since the New Testament
says Jesus died on a stauros, he did not die on a cross but on a single vertical beam, with his hands
nailed together directly over his head. ... The Witnesses say stauros `primarily denotes an upright stake
or pole.' ["Reasoning from the Scriptures," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, Second edition, 1989, p.89]
They wish to suggest (and the reader to understand) that it can mean only that. In fact, the word has a
broader sense. It means cross as well as stake. If you pick up a dictionary and look up the word `square,'
you find diverse senses of the word; the dictionary does not confine itself to a single Euclidean definition.
(By the way, notice that the Witnesses refer to `classical Greek.' The New Testament was not written in
classical Greek, but in Koine Greek, which has a sense of its own, just as American English has a sense of its
own, distinct from that of British English--but the difference between the two Greeks is greater.)" (Bower,
C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991)
3/03/2008
"We have to keep in mind the audience the Gospels were addressing. Prospective readers were already
Christians and were well aware of what type of execution instrument stauros referred to. There was no
need for a detailed, physical description of the cross and a cataloguing of all the elements of a crucifixion. In
the early Church it was the T-shaped cross that was designated by stauros in Greek and by crux in
Latin. The evidence for this is abundant and can be found in several areas of study--history, archaeology,
art, patrology, liturgical tradition, etymology, paleography, and the New Testament itself." (Bower, C.F., Jr.,
"Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991)
3/03/2008
"IN 1968 one of the greatest archaeological finds occurred. In an ossuary from burial caves at Giv'at
haMivtar in Jerusalem were found the remains of a man, aged 24-28, who had been crucified and died near
the year A.D. 70. Though thousands upon thousands had been crucified in antiquity, this was the first time
that archaeologists had discovered actual physical remains of a victim. The bones in the ossuary showed
the man's legs had been broken deliberately after the arms and legs had been nailed to a cross of olivewood.
The single nail that had pierced the feet had penetrated the ankle bones and could not be extracted before
burial. The description of this archaeological find is given in `Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal
Remains from Giv'at ha-Mivtar,' written by N. Haas of the Department of Anatomy at Hebrew University. His
article was published in the Israel Exploration Journal in 1970. Haas describes the scratch marks the nails
made on the arms of the executed man: `The scratch is an artifact produced on fresh bone by compression,
friction, and gliding. This artifact, in our interpretation, is the osteological evidence of the penetration of the
nail in the interosseous space between the radius and the ulna. The abrupted proximal edge of this scratch is
the evidence of the first direct contact of the nail with the radial bone. The smoothly-shaped, vanishing
slope is a secondary testimony, explained as the further result of the slight and gradual increasing
movement of friction, rotation and gliding between the radial bone and the nail, towards the end of the
crucifixion... . The whole of our interpretation concerning the position of the body on the cross may be
described briefly as follows: The feet were joined almost parallel, both transfixed by the same nail at the
heels, with the legs adjacent; the knees were doubled, the right one overlapping the left; the trunk was
contorted; the upper limbs were stretched out, each stabbed by a nail in the forearm.'" (The emphasis is
my own. It should also be pointed out that the article has photographs of the ossuary and of the bones.)
This is the most cogent evidence one could hope to find on the manner of crucifixion in the first century.
Keep in mind that this punishment was delivered under Roman rule and that Christ was condemned by the
Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate, and was executed by Roman soldiers on a Roman cross--with presumably
Roman techniques." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991.
Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"This ossuary is not the only thing archaeology has to show us. The Palatine crucifix is the oldest depiction
of a crucifixion. It was uncovered by archaeologists more than a century ago on the Palatine Hill in Rome. It
is second-century graffiti scratched into a wall that was part of the imperial palace complex. It includes a
caption--not by a Christian, but by someone taunting and deriding Christians and the crucifixions they
underwent. It shows crude stick-figures of a boy reverencing his `God,' who has the head of a jackass and is
up on a cross with arms spread wide and with hands nailed to the crossbeam. Here we have a Roman sketch
of a Roman crucifixion, and it is in the traditional cross shape." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?,"
This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991)
3/03/2008
"OUTSIDE the Christian context are found numerous references to crucifixion in the literature of antiquity.
Martin Hengel provides a synopsis of this literature in Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of
the Message of the Cross. Included is the poem of Pseudo-Manetho. It mocks condemned criminals who
are being crucified: `Punished with limbs outstretched, they see the stake as their fate; they are fastened
[and] nailed to it in the most bitter torment, evil food for birds of prey and grim pickings for dogs.' Notice:
`limbs outstretched.' " (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991.
Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Hengel quotes Lucian, writing in the second century of the Christian era, as he describes the nailing of
Prometheus to the rocks. The description uses the technical terms applied to a crucifixion: ` ... and he will be
in full sight of everyone as he hangs there... . We must not crucify him low and close to the ground ...
crucify him above the ravine with his hands outstretched.'In this literature from antiquity we find that the
letter `T' (the Greek letter tau) is looked upon as an unlucky letter or sign, similar to the way the number
thirteen is looked upon today as an unlucky number. Lucian elucidates the matter by saying that the letter
got its `evil significance' because of the `evil instrument' which had that shape, an instrument which tyrants
hung men on." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991)
3/03/2008
"The passion narratives in the New Testament are simple and direct. They do not dwell on the physical
details. The early Church did not dwell on them either. They were details the people of the day were
acquainted with all too well. The Gospels, sketchy though they are, show the crucifixion of Christ followed
the Roman routine we find recorded elsewhere. The punishment was reserved for non-citizens, for slaves,
for the worst of criminals, and for those who were threats to the order of the state. Victims were put on trial
under Roman authorities. When convicted they were beaten and whipped and forced to carry the cross--
specifically, a crossbeam. This piece was called in Latin the patibulum. The prisoners were driven through
the city streets and out to the place of execution. There they found in place a vertical beam, mounted in the
ground. The Latin term stipes designates this beam. The prisoners were stripped, nailed to the
crossbeams, and then mounted onto the vertical beams to complete the crucifixion. There were variants in
some cases, depending on the capriciousness and sadism of the executioners. The crowning with thorns
was such a variant." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991)
3/03/2008
"NOTHING in the New Testament indicates a foregoing of the usual Roman use of stipes (vertical beam)
and patibulum (crossbeam). The Gospel narratives speak of the soldiers whipping Christ, having him
carry the cross, stripping him, nailing him, and gambling for his clothes. There is no mention of Christ or the
soldiers digging a hole and placing into it the single (vertical) beam which he was forced to carry. The
vertical beam already must have been in place, so it was the crossbeam (patibulum) that he carried and
was nailed to." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991.
Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"The nature of crucifixion could not have escaped the early Church. (Nor did the Church want to escape it:
Paul insisted on preaching Christ crucified.) Although pictorial representations of the crucifixion of Jesus
did not enter Christian iconography until after the peace of Constantine, allusions to it and abstractions of it
are ubiquitous long before." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October
1991)
3/03/2008
"WHEN the initial letters of Christ's name ( chi rho or the less frequent iota chi) are superimposed they
form the symbol called the Christogram. It takes little effort to find in the Christogram an abstract
representation of a man crucified. The Christogram is found repeatedly in pious graffiti at virtually all early
Christian archaeological sites." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5,
October 1991. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Early Christian writers left testimony in their writings to a living rubrical tradition. Semper et ubique
('always and everywhere') we find the early Church using the rubric of the sign of the cross. Tertullian
testifies to how widespread and ingrained the habit of making the sign of the cross is. `In all our travels, in
our coming in and going out, in putting on our clothes and our shoes, at table, in going to rest, whatever
employment occupies us, we mark our forehead with the sign of the cross.' Hippolytus records in his
Apostolic Tradition the practice which by his time is the norm and encourages its continued use: `Do your
best at all times to make the sign of the cross on your forehead worthily. This sign of the Passion is a tried
remedy against the devil, provided you make it in the spirit of faith.' Ephraim continues the advice: `My son,
mark all your actions with the sign of the life- giving cross. Do not neglect that sign whether in eating or
drinking or going to sleep or in the home or going on a journey. There is no habit to be compared with it. Let
it be a protecting wall round all your conduct, and teach it to your children that they may earnestly learn the
custom.'" (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991. Emphasis
original)
3/03/2008
"Another rubric can be seen in the art of the catacombs. If you watch the priest at Mass, you can see this
rubric still in use. It is the posture of the `orant,' in which the one praying stands with his arms lifted up and
out to the sides, like a man crucified." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5,
October 1991. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Although the Greek and Latin languages, and thus our own, are alphabetic, an ideographic element is
present. An example could be the letter `o.' The letter takes the shape the mouth makes when it utters the
sound represented. In the letter `s' are found the shape and sound of a particular animal, so `s' used in such
words as `snake,' `serpent,' and `sinister.' The Latin for the word cross is cruX. The Greek word is
sTauros. Is there evidence here for what the ancients intended to convey when they took the idea of a
cross and committed it to alphabetic form?" (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2,
No. 5, October 1991. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"The French scholar Jean de Savignac studied the New Testament papyri in the Bodmer Collection. These
papyri rank among the oldest extant texts of the New Testament. They include substantial pieces of the
Gospels of Luke and John dating from around A.D. 250. In these de Savignac found that when the word
stauros was written it was written in a contracted form. In this contracted form the au is omitted and the
tau and the rho are superimposed. Professor Kurt Aland broadened de Savignac's research to include
other collections of papyri and found the same. What we have is the staurogram; it was used in the earliest
texts and was used regularly. The staurogram is an image with a horizontal crossbeam. What the copyists of
these early texts were conveying is evident." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2,
No. 5, October 1991. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"A LAST piece of evidence comes from the New Testament: Examine John 20:25, where doubting Thomas
speaks. The Witnesses' New World Translation gives the verse as follows: `Unless I see in his hands the
imprint of the nails, and put my finger into the place of the nails, and put my hand into his side, I will not
believe.' Even in their own translation John refers to hands (plural) and nails (plural). The inference is simple.
The Jehovah's Witnesses' magazines Awake! and Watchtower are decorated with illustrations in
nearly comic book style. Whenever they depict the death of Christ, they show him hanging from a single
vertical pole with both hands fixed together above his head by one nail." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross or Torture
Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991. Emphasis original)
3/03/2008
"Yet the real shape of the cross has been clear to all for centuries, indeed from the first century. Why this is
not clear to the Witnesses is beyond their ability to explain, unless it is that the institution they consider to
be the focus of the Whore of Babylon has, as its best-known symbol, the crucifix." (Bower, C.F., Jr., "Cross
or Torture Stake?," This Rock, Vol. 2, No. 5, October 1991)
4/03/2008
"Noun. STAUROS (stauros) denotes, primarily, an upright pale or stake. On such malefactors were nailed for
execution. Both the noun and the verb stauroo, to fasten to a stake or pale, are originally to be
distinguished from the ecclesiastical form of a two beamed cross. The shape of the latter had its origin in
ancient Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the
initial of his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D.
the churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to
increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart
from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the
Tau or T, in its most frequent form, with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the cross of
Christ." (Vine, W.E., "An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English
Readers," [1940], Oliphants: London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. I., p.256. Emphasis original)
4/03/2008
"As for the Chi, or X, which Constantine declared he had seen in a vision leading him to champion the
Christian faith, that letter was the initial of the word `Christ' and had nothing to with `the Cross' (for xulon,
a timber beam, a tree, as used for the stauros, see under TREE)." (Vine, W.E., "An Expository Dictionary
of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English Readers," [1940], Oliphants: London,
Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. I., pp.256-257. Emphasis original)
4/03/2008
"The method of execution was borrowed by Greeks and Romans from the Phoenicians. The stauros
denotes (a) the cross, or stake itself, e.g., Matt. 27:32 ; (b) the crucifixion suffered, e.g., 1 Cor. 1:17, 18, where
`the word of the cross' R:V., stands for the Gospel; Gal. 5:11, where crucifixion is metaphorically used of the
renunciation of the world, that characterizes the true Christian life ; 6:12, 14 ; Eph. 2:16; Phil. 3:18." (Vine,
W.E., "An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English
Readers," [1940], Oliphants: London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. I., p.257)
4/03/2008
"The judicial custom by which the condemned person carried his stake to the place of execution, was
applied by the Lord to those sufferings by which His faithful followers were to express their fellowship with
Him, e.g., Matt. 10:38." (Vine, W.E., "An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise
Meanings for English Readers," [1940], Oliphants: London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. I., p.257.
Emphasis original)
4/03/2008
"Verbs. 1. STAUROO (stauros) signifies (a) the act of crucifixion, e.g., Matt. 20:19 ; (b) metaphorically,
the putting off of the flesh with its passions and lusts, a condition fulfilled in the case of those who are "of
Christ Jesus," Gal. 5:24, R.V.; so of the relationship between the believer and the world, 6:14. 2.
SUSTAUROO (sustauroo), to crucify with (su-, for, sun, with), is used (a) of actual crucifixion in
company with another, Matt. 27:44 ; Mark 15:32 ; John 19:32 ; (b) metaphorically, of spiritual identification
with Christ in His death, Rom. 6:6, and Gal. 2:20. 3. ANASTAUROO (anastauroo) (ana, again) is used in
Heb. 6:6 of Hebrew apostates, who as merely nominal Christians, in turning back to Judaism, were thereby
virtually guilty of crucifying Christ again. 4. PROSPEGNUMI (prospegnumi), to fix or fasten to anything
(pros, to, pegnumi, to fix), is used of the crucifixion of Christ, Acts 2:23." (Vine, W.E., "An Expository
Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English Readers," [1940], Oliphants:
London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. I., p.257. Emphasis original)
4/03/2008
"TREE ... XULON (xulon) wood, a piece of wood, anything made of wood (see STAFF, STOCKS), is used,
with the rendering `tree,' (a) in Luke 23:31, where `the green tree' refers either to Christ, figuratively of all His
living power and excellencies, or to the life of the Jewish people while still inhabiting their land, in contrast
to `the dry,' a figure fulfilled in the horrors of the Roman massacre and devastation in A.D. 70 (cp. the Lord's
parable in Luke 13:6-9; see Ezek. 20:47, and cp. 2 1:3); (b) of the Cross, the tree being the stauros, the
upright pale or stake to which Romans nailed those who were thus to be executed, Acts 5:30; 10:39; 13:29;
Gal. 3:13; i Pet. 2:24; (c) of the tree of life, Rev. 2:7; 22:2 (twice), 14, 19, R.V., A.V., `book.' See WOOD." (Vine,
W.E., "An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English
Readers," [1940], Oliphants: London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. IV., p.153. Emphasis original)
4/03/2008
" STAFF, STAVES ... XULON (xulon), wood, then, anything made of wood, e.g., a cudgel or staff, is
rendered `staves' in Matt. 26:47, 55 and parallel passages. See STOCKS, TREE, WOOD. ... STOCKS XULON
(xulon), wood, is used of stocks in Acts 16:24. See STAFF, TREE, WOOD. ... WOOD ... XULON (xulon)
denotes timber, wood for any use, 2 Cor. 3:12; Rev. 18:12 (twice). See STAFF, STOCKS, TREE." (Vine, W.E.,
"An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English Readers,"
[1940], Oliphants: London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. IV., pp.70, 76, 229. Emphasis original)
4/03/2008
"x'ylon [wood, cross, tree] x'ylon means living or dead `wood,' anything made of wood, e.g., a `stick,'
`cudgel,' or `club,' also a `bench' or `table.' As an instrument of punishment or restraint it is a kind of wooden
collar. It is also used for the `stake' or `tree' to which malefactors are fastened. Figuratively .x'ylon is an
`unfeeling' person. The LXX often uses x'yla for trees, but also has x'lon for wood, used for cultic or
secular purposes." (Kittel, G. & Friedrich, G., eds., "Theological Dictionary of the New Testament: Abridged
in one Volume," [1985], Bromiley, G.W., transl., Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, Reprinted, 1988, p.665)
4/03/2008
"The Cross. A distinctive use of x'ylon in the NT is for the cross. The basis is Dt. 21:22, which stresses
the shame of being exposed on a tree. Acts 5:30; 10:39, etc. make the point that crucifixion is the greatest
possible insult to Jesus, but that God has displayed his majesty by raising him from the dead. Paul in Gal.
3:13 shows that Christ has redeemed us from the curse by being made a curse for us according to Dt. 21:22.
A curse lies on those who break the law, but Christ, who has not broken the law, voluntarily and vicariously
becomes accursed, as his death on the accursed wood makes plain. He thus releases us from the curse and
from the death that it entails. 1 Pet. 2:24 is to the same effect when it says that Christ bore our sins in his
own body on the `tree' (with a plain reference to Is. 53:4, 12). The vicarious element is prominent here.
Human sins are laid on Christ, crucified in him, and thus set aside. Christ does not lay sins on a scapegoat,
but takes them to himself and cancels them on the cross, so that sinners, dead to sin, may live to
righteousness." (Kittel, G. & Friedrich, G., eds., "Theological Dictionary of the New Testament: Abridged in
one Volume," [1985], Bromiley, G.W., transl., Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, Reprinted, 1988, p.666. Emphasis
original)
4/03/2008
"stauros; gen. staurou, masc. noun from histemi (2476), to stand. A cross, a stake, often with a
cross-piece, on which criminals were nailed for execution. The cross was an instrument of most dreadful and
agonizing torture. This mode of punishment was known to the Persians (Ezra 6:11; Esth. 7:10); and the
Carthaginians. However, it was most common among the Romans for slaves and criminals, and was
introduced among the Jews by the Romans. It was not abolished until the time of Constantine who did so
out of regard for Christianity. Persons sentenced to be crucified were first scourged and then made to bear
their own cross to the place of execution. A label or title was usually placed on the chest of or over the
criminal. Crucifixion was at once an execution, a pillory, and an instrument of torture." (Zodhiates, S., "The
Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament," [1992], AMG Publishers: Chattanooga TN, Third
printing, 1994, pp.1308-1309)
4/03/2008
"In biblical Gr., stauros occurs only in the NT and refers to: (I) A Roman cross consisting of a straight
piece of wood erected in the earth, often with a transverse beam fastened across its top and another piece
nearer the bottom on which the crucified person's feet were nailed, as was the cross on which the Lord Jesus
suffered (Matt. 27:32, 40, 42; Mark 15:21, 30, 32; Luke 23:26; John 19:17, 25, 31; Phil. 2:8; Col. 1:20; 2:14)."
(Zodhiates, S., "The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament," [1992], AMG Publishers:
Chattanooga TN, Third printing, 1994, p.1309)
4/03/2008
"stauroo; contracted stauro, fut. stauroso, from stauros (4716), cross. To crucify, spoken of the
punishment by crucifixion. (I) To crucify, affix, or nail to a cross (Matt. 20:19; 23:34; 26:2; 27:22f.; Mark
15:13f.; Acts 2:36; Sept.: Esth. 7:10). (II) Metaphorically, to crucify the flesh with the affections and lusts is
to mortify them through the faith and love of Christ crucified (Gal. 5:24; 6:14). " (Zodhiates, S., "The
Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament," [1992], AMG Publishers: Chattanooga TN, Third
printing, 1994, p.1309)
4/03/2008
"xulon; gen. xulou, neut. noun from xuo (n.f.), to scrape. Wood, generally for fuel, timber (1 Cor. 3:12;
Rev. 18:12; see Gen. 22:3, 6ff.). Anything made of wood: a staff, club (Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:43, 48; Luke
22:52); stocks or wooden blocks with holes in which the feet and sometimes the hands and neck of prisoners
were confined (Acts 16:24; Sept.: Job 33:11); a stake, cross, equivalent to stauros (4716), stake, post (Acts
5:30; 10:39; 13:29; Gal. 3:13; 1 Pet. 2:24; see Sept.: Deut. 21:22, 23; Esth. 5:14 [cf. Josh. 10:26, 27]). In Luke
23:31, en to hugro xulo (en [1722], in; to, the the dat. sing. of to, the neut. def. art. ho [3588], the;
hugro, the dat. neut. sing. of hugros [5200], wet), in the wet wood, refers to a living tree in contrast to a
dead one, xero (the dat. sing. of xeros [3584], dry one). In Rev. 2:7; 22:2, 14, it is conceivable that the
`tree of life' may be an allusion to the cross and could be rendered `wood of life' (a.t.). Sept.: Gen. 1:11, 12;
2:9. Deriv.: xulinos (3585), wooden. Syn.: rhabdos (4464), rod; dendron (1186), a tree; stauros
(4716), cross." (Zodhiates, S., "The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament," [1992], AMG
Publishers: Chattanooga TN, Third printing, 1994, p.1023)
5/03/2008
"One scholar put his finger on the problem when he explained that belief in the deity of Jesus-his unique
status among human beings as God in the flesh-implies that Jesus is the only way for people to be properly
related to God: `Traditional orthodoxy says that Jesus of Nazareth was God incarnate ... who became man
to die for the sins of the world and who founded the church to proclaim this to the ends of the earth, so that
all who sincerely take Jesus as their Lord and Savior are justified by his atoning death and will inherit
eternal life. It follows from this that Christianity, alone among the world religions, was founded by God in
person. God came down from heaven to earth and launched the salvific movement that came to be known as
Christianity. From this premise it seems obvious that God must wish all human beings to enter this stream of
saved life, so that Christianity shall supersede all the other world faiths. They may perhaps have some good
in them and be able to function to some extent as a preparation for the gospel, but nevertheless Christianity
alone is God's own religion.... It is therefore divinely intended for all men and women without exception.
All this follows logically from the central dogma of the deity of Jesus.' [Hick, J., "A Pluralist View," in
Okholm, D.L. & Phillips, T.R., "Four Views on Salvation in a Pluralistic World," Zondervan: Grand Rapids
MI, 1995, pp.51-52] It is remarkable, however, that the person who made this observation doesn't believe in
the deity of Jesus. He is, in fact, a well-known opponent of that doctrine." (Bowman, R.M., Jr. & Komoszewski,
J.E., "Putting Jesus In His Place: The Case for the Deity of Christ," Kregel: Grand Rapids MI, 2007, pp.18-19)
5/03/2008
"But in what way does conservative theology entail the unique superiority of Christianity? Traditional
orthodoxy says that Jesus of Nazareth was God incarnate-that is, God the Son, the Second Person of a
divine Trinity, incarnate-who became man to die for the sins of the world and who founded the church to
proclaim this to the ends of the earth, so that all who sincerely take Jesus as their Lord and Savior are
justified by his atoning death and will inherit eternal life. It follows from this that Christianity, alone among
the world religions, was founded by God in person. God came down from heaven to earth and launched the
salvific movement that came to be known as Christianity. From this premise it seems obvious that God must
wish all human beings to enter this new stream of saved life, so that Christianity shall supersede all the other
world faiths. They may perhaps have some good in them and be able to function to some extent as a
preparation for the gospel, but nevertheless Christianity alone is God's own religion, offering a fullness of
life that no other tradition can provide; it is therefore divinely intended for all men and women without
exception. All this follows logically from the central dogma of the deity of Jesus." (Hick J., "A Pluralist
View," in Okholm, D.L. & Phillips, T.R., "Four Views on Salvation in a Pluralistic World," [1995], Zondervan:
Grand Rapids MI, Reprinted, 1996, pp.51-52)
6/03/2008
"Be very careful to be accurate in all statements you make. Use evidence honestly. In quotations, do not
twist the meaning of a writer or speaker or use only partial quotations to give a different thought than the
person intended. Also if you use statistics, use them properly. Statistics can often be used to give a
distorted picture." (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "Qualified to be Ministers," [1955], Watchtower
Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY, Revised, 1967, p.198)
6/03/2008
"stauros, o, upright pale or stake, ... Od. 14.11, cf. Il. 24.4.53, Th.. 4.90, X., An. 5.2.21; of piles
driven in to serve as a foundation, Hdt. 5.16,. Th. 7.25. II. cross, as the instrument of crucifixion, D.S. 2.18,
Ev. Matt. 27.40, Plu. 2.554a ... Luc. Peregr. 34; ... metaph, of voluntary suffering, Ev. Matt. 10.38, Ev.
Luc. 9.23, 14.27: its form was represented by the Greek letter T, Luc. Jud. Voc. 12, b, pale for impaling a
corpse, Plu. Art. 17. ... staur-oo, (stauros) fence with pales, Th.. 7.25; ... D.S. 24.1:-Pass., Th. 6.100. II.
crucify, PIb. 1.86.4, Ev. Matt. 20. 19, Critodem. in Cat. Cod. Astr. 8(4), 200: metaph.,. crucify it,
destroy its power, Ep. Gal. 5.24. cf. 6.14: ... nail from a cross, as amulet, Asclep. Jun. ap. Alex. Trall.
I.15. ... palisade or stockade, Th. 5.10, 6.64, 74, X. HG 3.2.3, etc. ... deserving crucifixion, Hsch. s.v.
... stockade, Th. 7.25." (Liddell, H.G., Scott, R. & Jones, H.S., "A Greek-English Lexicon," Seventh edition,
Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1883, p.1635. My transliteration)
7/03/2008
"As a soldier of Christ he [a Jehovah's witness] is in theocratic warfare and he must exercise added caution
when dealing with God's foes. Thus the Scriptures show that for the purpose of protecting the interests of
God's cause, it is proper to hide the truth from God's enemies. ... This would come under the term `war
strategy'" ("Questions From Readers," The Watchtower, June 1, 1960, p.352)
7/03/2008
"The present writer made a few experiments with exercises in modern English, but these were not very
successful, and it was the discovery of the companion book in this series, Teach Yourself Greek, which
brought a great hope that something similar might be done for New Testament Greek. The Classical book
was useless after the first few lessons because of its completely different vocabulary, and because
Hellenistic Greek has many peculiarities of its own, but a very sincere debt of gratitude must be recorded to
the earlier book, which has provided the basic method of the present one, and also quite a number of
illustrations. " (Hudson, D.F., "Teach Yourself New Testament Greek," [1960], English Universities Press:
London, Reprinted, 1967, p.v)
8/03/2008
"stauros, ou, o, the cross (Hom. + in the sense `upright, pointed stake' or `pale') in our lit. of the
instrument by which the capital punishment of crucifixion was carried out (Diod. S. 2, 18; Plut. et al.; Philo, In
Flacc. 84; Jos., Ant. 11, 261; 266f. S. also CSchneider, TW III 414, 4 and JJCollins, The Archeology of the
Crucifixion, CBQ 1, '39, 154-9), a stake sunk into the earth in an upright position; a cross-piece was oft.
(Artem. 2, 53) attached to its upper part, so that it was shaped like a T or thus . 1. lit., w. other means of
execution (Diogenes, Ep. 28, 3) I Ro 5:3; Hw 3, 2, 1. Used in the case of Jesus Mt 27:40, 42; Mk 15:30, 32; J
19:25, 31; Phil 2:8; GP 4:11; 10:39, 42. upomenein staurou submit to the cross Hb 12:2. The condemned man
himself carried his cross to the place of execution (Plut., Mor. 554A ekastos kakourgon ekpherei ton autou
stauron; Charito 4, 2, 7 ekastos t. stauron ephere; Artem. 2, 56.-Pauly-W. IV 1731) J 19:17; in the synoptics
Simon of Cyrene was made to carry the cross for Jesus (Simon 4) Mt 27:32; Mk 15:21; Lk 23:26. An
inscription on the cross indicated the reason for the execution J 19:19 (s. titlos). ... B seeks to show in several
passages that ace. to the scriptures it was necessary for the Messiah to die on the cross: 8:1 (the zulon that
plays a part in connection w. the red heifer, Num 19:6, is o tupos o tou staurou; 9:8 (in the case of the 318
servants of Abraham Gen 14:14 the number 300 represented by the numerical value of the letter T) points to
the cross; cf. Lucian, Jud. Voc. 12: the letter tau has the form of the stauros); 11:1, 8a (the zulon Ps 1:3); 12:1
(scripture quot. of uncertain origin).-WWoodSeymour, The Cross in Tradition, History and Art '98 (here, p.
xx-xxx, lit.); HFulda, D. Kreuz u. d. Kreuzigung 79; VSchultze, RE XI 90ff; HFHitzig, Pauly-W. IV '01, 1728-31;
PW-Schmidt, Die Geschichte Jesu II '04, 386ff; 409ff; UHolzmeister, Crux Domini '34; G.Wiencke, Pls uber
Jesu Tod '39; HWSchmidt, D. Kreuz Christi bei Paulus: ZaystTh 21,'50,145-59. M.M. B. 902f." (Arndt, W.F.
& Gingrich, F.W., 1957, "A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian
literature," University of Chicago Press: Chicago IL, Fourth edition, 1952, Revised, p.772. My transliteration).
8/03/2008
"Koine (from Greek koine, `common language'), the fairly uniform Hellenistic Greek spoken and written
from the 4th century BC until the time of Justinian (mid-6th century AD) in Greece, Macedonia, and the parts
of Africa and the Near East that had come under the influence or control of Greeks or of Hellenized rulers.
Based chiefly on the Attic dialect, the Koine superseded the other ancient Greek dialects by the 2nd century
AD. Koine is the language of the Greek translation of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), of the New
Testament, and of the writings of the historian Polybius and the philosopher Epictetus. It forms the basis of
Modern Greek. The divergences of the Koine from the classical norms gave rise in the 1st century an to a
purist movement known as Atticism, which had little effect on the everyday spoken language although it
influenced the written language, causing it to have archaizing tendencies." ("Koine," Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Benton: Chicago IL, 15th edition, 1984, Vol. v, p.871. http://library.eb.com.au/eb/article-9045900).
8/03/2008
"stauros, -ou, o, l. an upright pale or stake (Hom., Hdt., Thuc., al.). 2. In late writers (Diod., Plut., al.)
of the Roman instrument of crucifixion, the Cross: of the Cross on which Christ suffered, Mt 27:32, 40, 42,
Mk 15:21, 30, 32, Lk 23:26, Jo 19:17, 19, 25, 31, Col 2:14, He 12:2; thanatos staurou, Phl 2:8; t. aima tou s..,
Col 1:20. Metaph., in proverbial sayings: airein (lambanein, bastaizein) ton s., Mt 10:38; 16:24, Mk
8:34 10:21 15:21, Lk 9:23 14:27 (for an interesting ex. of metaph, use in p., v. MM, xxiii). By meton., for
Christ's death on the Cross: I Co 1:17, Ga 5:11; 6:12, 14, Eph 2:16, Phl 3:18; o logos o tou s., I Col 1:18. ...
stauroo, -o (< stauropos), [in LXX : Es 7:9 (`ets) 1. to fence wath pales, impalisade (Thuc.). 2. In
late writers (Polyb., F1J; but anastauroo is more common) to crucify : c. ace. pers., Mt 20:19; 23:34; 26:2;
27:22 ff. 28:5; Mk 15:13 ff. 16:6, Lk 23:21; 23, 33; 24:7, 20; Jo 19:6 ff., Ac 2:36; 4:10; I Co 1:13, 23; 2:2, 8; II Co
13:4, Ga 3:1, Re 11:8; metaph., Ga 5:24; 6:14." (Abbott-Smith, G., "A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New
Testament," [1921], T. & T. Clark: Edinburgh, Third edition,1937, Reprinted, 1956, pp.415-416. My
transliteration)
8/03/2008
"See Appendix 5C of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures with References (1984) under `Torture
Stake,' 1977-8. The society has, of course, pointed out something useful by noting that stauros does not
necessarily mean `cross' but simply a pale or timber. But nothing demonstrates so clearly how much their
scholarship is affected by dogmatism than does this issue. There is a great deal of evidence from early church
fathers such as Justin Martyr that Christians in his day believed that Christ was put to death on a cross, Roman
writers such as Cicero state that Roman criminals were often executed on a cross, and modern archaeology
supports the theory that Jews in Jesus' day were crucified on a cross. (See Time, 18 January 1971, 64, 65.)
Finally, by showing but one illustration from Justus Lipsius' De cruce libri tres - a picture of a man impaled on a
crux simplex or upright pale - on page 1578 of The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures with
References, Watch Tower scholars falsely leave the impression that Lipsius thought that Jesus was put to death
in that way. In fact, Lipsius gives sixteen illustrations of impalement, thirteen of which show stakes with some
sort of cross member. Although there is no conclusive proof, there is evidence that Christ died on a cross."
(Penton, M.J., "Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses," [1985], University of Toronto Press:
Toronto ON, Second edition, 1997, p.372. Emphasis original)
8/03/2008
"WILLIAM EDWY VINE was born at Blandford, Dorset, in 1873, where his father had a boarding school.
Through the teaching of his godly father and mother he was converted in early boyhood, and was baptized
at the age of fourteen. He studied at the University College of Wales, was a well-equipped student in the
ancient classics-the subject in which he received the degrees of B.A. with honours and subsequently M.A.
from the University of London. His profession in earlier days was that of a schoolmaster-a profession in
which habits of grammatical, textual and historical accuracy are specially fostered. And when he brought his
classical equipment and his accurate habits of mind to bear upon the study of the Bible, the result was a
long list of works to which many readers gladly acknowledge their indebtedness. (Vine, W.E., "An
Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English Readers," [1940],
Oliphants: London, Nineteenth impression, 1969, rear cover. Emphasis original)
8/03/2008
"A second movement grew out of reaction against the unspirituality of the establishment in the early years
of the nineteenth century. Groups of "brethren," who claimed faith and Christian love as their only bonds,
gathered in Ireland and western England. Their great increase was through the labors of John Nelson Darby
(1800-1882), formerly a clergyman of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland, in the vicinity of Plymouth about
1830. They are therefore generally nicknamed "Plymouth Brethren." To their thinking all believers are
priests, and hence formal ministries are to be rejected. Creeds are to be refused. The Holy Spirit guides all
true believers, and unites them in faith and worship after the apostolic model. Though professedly rejecting
all denominationalism, the "brethren" found themselves speedily compelled to corporate acts of discipline,
and are divided into at least six groups. Darby was an indefatigable propagandist. Through his efforts the
"brethren" were planted in Switzerland, France, Germany, Canada, and the United States." (Walker, W., "A
History of the Christian Church," [1918], T. & T. Clark: Edinburgh, Revised, 1959, Reprinted, 1963, p.500)
14/03/2008
"Such a single stake for impalement of a criminal was called crux simplex, and the method of nailing him to
such an instrument of torture is illustrated by the Roman Catholic scholar, Justus Lipsius, of the 16th
century. We present herewith a photographic copy of his illustration on page 647, column 2, of his book
De Cruce Liber Primus. This is the manner in which Jesus was impaled. ... Crux simplex illustrated by
Justus Lipsius. See page 1360" (Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, "New World translation of the Holy
Scriptures," [1961], Watchtower Bible & Tract Society of New York: Brooklyn NY, Third revision with
footnotes, 1971, pp.1360-1361)
15/03/2008
"Did Christ Die on a Cross? `But does not the Bible teach that Christ actually died on a cross?' one may ask.
To answer this, we must look into the meanings of the two Greek words that the Bible writers used to
describe the instrument of Christ's death: stau·ros' and xy'lon. The International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia (1979) states under the heading `Cross': `Originally Gk. staurós designated a pointed, vertical
wooden stake firmly fixed in the ground... . They were positioned side by side in rows to form fencing or
defensive palisades around settlements, or singly they were set up as instruments of torture on which
serious offenders of law were publicly suspended to die (or, if already killed, to have their corpses
thoroughly dishonored).' True, the Romans did use an instrument of execution known in Latin as the crux.
And in translating the Bible into Latin, this word crux was used as a rendering of stau·ros'. Because
the Latin word crux and the English word cross are similar, many mistakenly assume that a crux was
necessarily a stake with a crossbeam. However, The Imperial Bible-Dictionary says: `Even amongst the
Romans the crux (from which our cross is derived) appears to have been originally an upright pole, and
this always remained the more prominent part.' The book The Non-Christian Cross adds: `There is not a
single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek,
bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an
ordinary stauros [pole or stake]; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of
two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross.' Christ could well have been impaled on a form of crux
(stau·ros') known as the crux simplex. That was how such a stake was illustrated by the Roman Catholic
scholar Justus Lipsius of the 16th century. What of the other Greek word, xy'lon? It was used in the Greek
Septuagint translation of the Bible at Ezra 6:11. In the New World Translation this reads: `And by me
an order has been put through that, as for anybody that violates this decree, a timber will be pulled out of
his house and he will be impaled upon it, and his house will be turned into a public privy on this account.'
Clearly, a single beam, or `timber,' was involved here. Numerous translators of the Christian Greek Scriptures
(New Testament) therefore translate Peter's words at Acts 5:30 to read: `The God of our forefathers raised up
Jesus, whom you slew, hanging him upon a stake [or, `tree,' according to the King James Version, New
International Version, The Jerusalem Bible, and Revised Standard Version].' You might also wish to
check how your Bible translates xy'lon at: Acts 10:39; 13:29; Galatians 3:13; and 1 Peter 2:24." ("Is the
Cross for Christians?," The Watchtower, August 15, 1987, pp.22-23)
15/03/2008
"Jesus Christ was killed on an upright stake that had no crosspiece. The misunderstanding has been due
largely to some Bible translators who translated the Greek words staurós and xylon as cross. They may
have been influenced to do this by Christendom's traditional belief that Christ died on a cross. The word
staurós means an upright stake or pale, whereas xylon merely means wood. Even the basic meaning of
crux, the Latin equivalent for staurós, is merely a wooden instrument of execution on which a criminal is
impaled or hanged. Because the original meanings of these words were later expanded to include the cross,
that does not argue that the Bible writers meant cross when they spoke about Jesus' death instrument. The
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, says: `Lipsius and other writers speak of the single upright stake to
which criminals were bound as a cross, and to such a stake the name of crux simplex has been applied.' It
was this simple stake that Jesus was hanged on with his hands nailed above his head." ("The Cross in
Worship," The Watchtower, February 15, 1960, pp.126-127)
15/03/2008
"Any authoritative Latin dictionary will inform the examiner that the basic meaning of crux is a `tree, frame,
or other wooden instrument of execution' on which criminals were impaled or hanged. (Lewis-Short) A cross
is only a later meaning of crux. Even in the writings of Livy, a Roman historian of the first century B.C.,
crux means a mere stake. Such a single stake for impalement of a criminal was called crux simplex, and
the method of nailing him to such an instrument of torture is illustrated by the Roman Catholic scholar,
Justus Lipsius, of the 16th century. We present herewith a photographic copy of his illustration on page
647, column 2, of his book De Cruce Liber Primus. This is the manner in which Jesus was impaled." ("Was
Christ Hung on a Cross?," The Watchtower, November 1, 1950, pp.426-427)
15/03/2008
"skolops [pointed stake, thorn] 1. This rare term denotes a `pointed stake,' such as is used in pits or
palisades. Being fastened to such a stake is a form of execution; the reference is to crucifixion on a T -
shaped cross, or to impaling and exposure on a stake. Corpses are also impaled on stakes as a sign of
disgrace. 2. Another meaning in the LXX is a `thorn' or `splinter' on the foot, finger, etc., which doctors
remove by plasters or ointments. Spines of palms are used in magic, and demons supposedly put prickles on
women's temples. In the OT God blocks the way of Israel with thickets in Hos. 2:8, and oppressors are
splinters in the eyes of Israel in Num. 33:55 or thorns in Ezek. 28:24. 3. In 2 Cor. 12:7 Paul is speaking about
bodily afflictions, and among these he mentions a skolops that God sends, that acts as a messenger of
Satan, and that is obviously painful. The idea is not that of a stake to which the apostle is impaled, nor of a
barb of depression, e.g., at his failure to win the Jews to Christ, or in reaction from ecstasy. Physical ill-
treatment or a physical disability seems to be in view, but there can be no saying what it is. Although it
hampers his work, God uses it to keep him from arrogance and to point him to his true strength. 4. Only
rarely do Christians use the group with reference to Jesus' execution (cf. Origen Against Celsus 2.55.68-
69). It lies outside the usage that soon develops in relation to the cross (cf. the paucity of anastauroun)."
(Kittel, G. & Friedrich, G., eds., "Theological Dictionary of the New Testament: Abridged in one Volume,"
[1985], Bromiley, G.W., transl., Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, Reprinted, 1988, p.1047. Emphasis original)
15/03/2008
"skolops; gen. skolopos, masc. noun. Something pointed, sharp, as a stake, the point of a hook, a
thom, prickle (Sept.: Hos. 2:6). In 2 Cor. 12:7, `a thorn in the flesh,'" something which causes severe pain or
constant irritation, probably some bodily infirmity, equal to astheneia (769), sickness, weakness. Syn.:
akantha (173), a thorn, brier." (Zodhiates, S., "The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament,"
[1992], AMG Publishers: Chattanooga TN, Third printing, 1994, p.1296)
15/03/2008
"SKOLOPS (skolops) originally denoted anything pointed, e.g., a stake ; in Hellenistic vernacular, a thorn
(so the Sept., in Numb. 33:55 ; Ezek. 28:24 ; Hos. 2:6), 2 Cor. 12:7, of the Apostle's `thorn in, the flesh;' his
language indicates that it was physical, painful, humiliating; it was also the effect of Divinely permitted
Satanic antagonism; the verbs rendered `that I should (not) be exalted overmuch' (R.V.) and `to buffet' are in
the present tense, signifying recurrent action, indicating a constantly repeated attack. Lightfoot interprets it
as `a stake driven through the flesh,' and Ramsay agrees with this. Most commentators adhere to the
rendering `thorn.' Field says `there is no doubt that the Alexandrine use of skolops for thorn is here
intended, and that the ordinary meaning of ` stake ' must be rejected.' What is stressed is not the
metaphorical size, but the acuteness of the suffering and its effects. Attempts to connect this with the
circumstances of Acts 14:19 and Gal. 4:13 are speculative." (Vine, W.E., "An Expository Dictionary of New
Testament Words: With Their Precise Meanings for English Readers," [1940], Oliphants: London,
Nineteenth impression, 1969, Vol. IV, pp.130-131. Emphasis original)
16/03/2008
"There are four basic types of iconographic representations of the cross: the crux quadrata, or Greek
cross, with four equal arms; the crux immissa, or Latin cross, whose base stem is longer than the other
three arms; the crux commissa, in the form of the Greek letter tau, sometimes called St. Anthony's cross;
and crux decussata, named from the Roman decussis, or symbol of the numeral 10, also known as St.
Andrew's cross. Tradition favours the crux immissa as that on which Christ died, but some believe that it
was a crux commissa. The many variations and ornamentations of processional, altar, and heraldic
crosses, of carved and painted crosses in churches, graveyards, and elsewhere, are developments of these
four types." ("Cross," Encyclopaedia Britannica, Benton: Chicago IL, 15th edition, 1984, Vol. iii, p.256.
http://library.eb.com.au/eb/article-9027990)
18/03/2008
"Cross, Wood, Tree The word now normally translated as cross denotes in Greek an instrument of
torture and execution. It has gained a special significance through its historic connection with the death of
Jesus. Two words are used for the instrument of execution on which Jesus died: xylon (wood, tree) and
stauros (stake, cross). xylon: meant originally wood, and is often used in the NT of wood as a material.
Through its connection with Deut. 21:23 (quoted in Gal. 3:13, `Cursed be everyone who hangs on a tree'),
xylon could virtually be treated as synonymous with stauros. In the gospels stauros is used in the
accounts of the execution of Jesus, and in the theological reflection of the Pauline literature it symbolizes the
-> sufferings and -> death of Christ." (Brown, C., ed., "The New International Dictionary of New Testament
Theology: Vol. 1: A-F," Zondervan: Grand Rapids MI, 1975, p.389. Emphasis original)
18/03/2008
"THE FORMS of the cross mark considered in this survey of the literary evidence are, therefore: the
equilateral cross, which is essentially the Semitic taw in upright position, which was still used widely in the
Hellenistic church and is commonly known as the Greek cross; the tau cross (crux commissa), which
corresponds in shape to the Greek letter tau and the Latin letter t, the letters which were the first equivalents
in those languages of the Hebrew taw; the Latin cross (crux immissa), which is like a Greek cross but with
the lower arm longer than the other three; and the cross which is like the taw written sideways, the Greek chi,
and the Latin x or `ten,' hence is known as the crux decussata. Originally this cross mark signified
salvation and the divine name; even when the mark was connected with the instrument of the execution of
Jesus it continued to express the saving power which works through his death." (Finegan, J., "The
Archeology of the New Testament: The Life of Jesus and the Beginning of the Early Church," [1969],
Princeton University Press: Princeton NJ, Revised edition, 1992, p.352. Emphasis original)
18/03/2008
"The death of the perfect man Jesus would, in any manner inflicted, meet the requirements of the law,
because death was the penalty inflicted upon Adam. Why, then, was Jesus crucified? Jesus was crucified,
not on a cross of wood, such as is exhibited in many images and pictures, and which images are made and
exhibited by men; Jesus was crucified by nailing his body to a tree. His being put to death in this manner
symbolically said: `This man is cursed of God.' Dying as a sinner was an ignominious death, and being
crucified upon a tree in effect said: `The one here dying is put to death as a vile sinner.' Such was a
provision that Gad had made in his law. (Deuteronomy 21:22, 23) The curse of God was upon Adam because
of Adam's willful sin. To become the ransomer or redeemer Jesus must die as though he were accursed of
God, a vile sinner, yet without sin in fact; and for this reason Jehovah suffered his Beloved Son to be put to
death by nailing him to a tree. `Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law, being made a curse for us;
for it is written, Cursed is every one that hangeth on a tree.' (Galatians 3:13) `The God of our fathers raised
up Jesus, whom ye slew and hanged on a tree. ` - Acts 5:30. The crucifixion of Jesus upon a tree is a
testimony to all creation that he willingly suffered the most ignominious death in order that he might prove
himself entirely obedient to the will of God under the most adverse conditions and thereby meet all the
requirements of God's law as pertains to a sinful man." (Rutherford, J.F., "Riches," Watchtower Bible &
Tract Society, Brooklyn NY, 1936, p.27)
18/03/2008
"crux, ucis, f. (m, Enn. ap. Non. p. 195, 13; Gracch. ap. Fest. s.v. masculine. p. 150, 24, and 151, 12
Mull.) [perh. Kindred with circus]. I. Lit. A. In gen., a tree, frame, or other wooden instruments of
execution, on which criminals were impaled or hanged, Sen. Prov. 3, 10; Cic. Rab. Perd. 3, 10 sqq.- B.
In partic., a cross, Ter. And. 3, 5. 15; Cic. Cur. 2. 1, 3, § 7; 2, 1, 4,; 9; id. Pis. 18, 12; id. Fin. 5, 30, 93; Quint.
4. 2. 17; Tsc. d. 13. 44; Hor. S. 1, 3, 82; 2, 7, 47; id. Ep. 1,16, 48 et saep.: diguus fait qui maio aruce periret,
Gracch. ap. Fest. l. 1. pendula, the pole of a carriage, Stat. S.4, 3, 28. - II. Transf. A. As a term of
reproach, a gallows bird, a hempen rascal, Plaut. Pers. 5, 2, 17. - B. Transf., torture, trouble, misery,
destruction, etc. (so most freq. in Plaut. and Ter., and in the former esp. freq. inconnection with mala):
aliqua mala crux, tormentor (of a prostitute), Plaut. Aul. 3, 5, 48;. cf.: illae cruces, Ter. Eun. 2, 3, 92:
quae to mala crux agitat? what tormentor troubles you? Plaut. Bacch. 4, 2, 3: abstraxit hominem in
maximam malam crucem, id. Men. prol. 66: quaerere in malo crucem, Ter. Phorm. 3,3,11.- Prov.: summam
jus antiqui summam putabant crucem, Col. 1, 7, 2 - Hence, in colloq. lang.: I (abi, etc.) in malam crucem!
go to the devil! go and be hanged Plaut. Cas. 3, 5, 17; id. Ps. 3, 2, 67; 4, 7, 86 al.; Ter. Phorm. 2, 3, 2l;
cf.: Cy. Num quid vis? Me Ut eas maximam in malam crucem, Plant. Men. 2, 2, 53; id. Capt. 3, 1, 9. -
Without mala: I in crucem, Plant. As. 5, 2, 91.- And ellipt.: in malam crucem! Plaut. Cas. 5, 4, 8; id. Ps. 5,
2, 5. -Hence, Ital. croce; Fr. croiz." (Lewis, C.T. & Short, C.S., "A Latin Dictionary," Clarendon Press:
Oxford, 1890, pp.485-486. Emphasis original)
18/03/2008
"furca, ae f. [Sanscr. bhur-ig. shears; cf. Lat. forceps, forfex; also Gr. φυροσ, plough ; Lat. forare;
Engl. bore, Curt. Gr. .Etym. p.299; but Corss. refers furca to root : dhar-, - fero, as a prop. support; v. Ausspr.
1. 149], a two-pronged fork. I. Lit. exacuunt alii vallos furcasque bicornes, Verg. . G. 1. 264: valentes, id.
ib. 2, 359: furcis detrudi. Liv. 28, ;3, 7; cf. Caes. B. C. 2. 11. 2. -Prov.: naturam expellas furca. tamenusque
recurret. with might and main. Hor. Ep:. 1. 10. 24. (v. furcilla).- II. Transf, of things shaped like a fork.
A. A fork-shaped prop, pale or stake, for carrying burdens on the back or shoulder. Plaut. Cas. 2, 8, 2:
for supporting the seats of a theatre, Liv. 1, 35, 9; for a vine. Plin. 14.2, § 32; for fishing nets, id. 9, 8. 9, § 31;
for the gable of a house, Ov. M. 8. 700; a frame on which meat was suspended in the chimney, id. ib. 8. 648
- B. An instrument of punishment in the form of a fork (V or ), which was placed on the culprit's neck,
while his hands were fastened to the two ends, a yoke (cf. crux , gabalus, patibulum; hence, furcifer): To.
Satis sumpsimus jam supplici. Do. Fateer. manus vobis do. To. Post dabis sub furcis, Plaut. Pers. 5, 2,
71: canem et furcam ferre. id. Cas. 2, 6, 37: servus per circum, cum virgis caederetur, furcam ferens ductus est.
Cic. Div. 1, 26, 55 : servus sub furca caesus, Liv. 2, 36, 1. Drak.; Val. Max. 1. 7. 4: Lact. 2, 7, 20): sub furca
vinctus, inter verbera et cruciatus, Liv 1. 26. 10 : cervicem inserere furcae. Suet. Ner. 49; Eutr. 7, 5; Prud.
streph. 10, 851 - Hence poet. to designate the worst condition of slavery: ibis sub furcam prudens. Hor. S.
2. 7. 66. - C. A fork shaped gallows : aliquem furca ligere. Dig. 48. 19. 28 fin.: furcae subicere, ib. 9: in
furcam tollere, ib 38: in furcam suspendere, ib. 13. 6: in furcam damnare. ib. 49, 16, 3 : canes vivi in furca,
sambucca arbore fixi , Plin. 29. 4. 14, § 57. - D. a fork shaped yoke in which young bullocks were put to
be tamed, Varr.R. R. I, 20. 20. - E. Furcae cancrorum, the claws of a crab. App. Mag. p. 297. - F. Furcae
Caudinae, the narrow pass of Caudium, the Caudine Forks, usually called Furculae Caudinae (v. furcula,
II. and Caudium), Val. Max. 5, 1, 5 ext.; 7, 2, 17 ext. " (Lewis, C.T. & Short, C.S., "A Latin Dictionary,"
Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1890, p.795. Emphasis original)
18/03/2008
"1. palus, i, m. (neutr. collat. form palum, i Varr. ap. Non. 219. 18) (for paglus (cf. dim. paxillus);
root pag-; Sanscr. pacas, snare; Gr. pegnumi, fasten; Lat. pango; cf.: pignus, pax], a stake, prop, stay,
pale. I. Lit. (very freq. and class.; syn.: sudes, stipes): ut figam palum in parietem, Plaut. Mil. 4, 4, 4; id.
Men. 2, 3, 53: damnnti ad supplioiam traditi, ad palum alligat:, Cic. Verr. 2, 5, .5, § 11: palis adjungere vitem,
Tib. 1, 8 (7), 33; Ov. F. 1, 665: palos et ridicas dolare. Col. 11. 2, 11; Varr. 1. l.-The Roman soldier learned to
fight by attacking a stake set in the ground, Veg. Mil. 1, 11; 2. 33; hence, aut quis non vidit vulnera pali? Juv.
6. 246 - And, transf: exerceamur ad palum: et, no imparatos fortuna deprehendat, fiat nobis paupertas
familiaris, Sen. Ep. 18. 6.- In the lang. of gladiators, palus primus or palusprimus (called also machaera
Herculeana, Capitol. Pert. 8), a gladiator's sword of wood, borne by the secutores, whence their leader was
also called primus palus, Lampr. Commod. 15; Inscr. Marin. Fratr. Arv. p. 694.. - Prov.: quasi palo pectus
tundor, of one astonished, stunned; Plaut. Rud. 5. 2. 2 - II. Transf. = membrum virile, Hor. S. l., 8; 5."
(Lewis, C.T. & Short, C.S., "A Latin Dictionary," Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1890, p.1295. Emphasis original)
18/03/2008
"patibulatus, a um, adj [patibulum], fastened to the patibulum: yoked, gibbeted, Plaut. Most. 1; 1. 53:
patibulatus ferar per urbem, deinde .affigar cruci, id. Fragm. ap. Non. 221. 13 (al. patibulum) : exitiabili nexu
patibulatum relinquens, gibbeted, App. M. 4, p. 147, 4 (al. patibulum). patibulum, i, n. (masc collat.
form patibulus, i, Varr. ap. Non. 221.12: v. in the foll.) [pateo], a fork-shaped yoke, placed on the necks
of criminals, and to which their hands were tied; also, a fork-shaped gibbet (syn. furca). I. Lit.: dispessis
manibus patibulum quom habebis, Plaut. Mil. 2, 4, 7: patibulo eminens adfigelatur, Sall. Pragm. ap. Non. 4.
355 (Hist. 4, 40 Dietsch): caedes, patibula, ignes, cruces, Tac. A. 14, 33; Cic. Verr. 2, 4. 41, § 90.-:Masc.:
deligat ad patibulos. Varr. ap. Nou. 221. 12: suspende eos contra solem in patibulis, Vulg. Num. 25, 4.- II.
A forked, prop for vines, Plin. 17, 23, 35, § 212; Cato, R. R. 26. - B. A wooden bar for fastening a door,
Titin, ap. Non. 366, 16. 1. patibulus, a. um, adj. [pateo], fastened to a patibulum; yoked, gibbeted,
Plaut. Fragm. ap. Non. 221, 13; App. App. M. 4. p. 147 (in both passages al. leg, patibulatum; v.
patibulatus). 2. patibulus, i, m, v. patibulum." (Lewis, C.T. & Short, C.S., "A Latin Dictionary," Clarendon
Press: Oxford, 1890, p.1314.
Emphasis original)
18/03/2008
"stipes, itis (collat. form stips, stipis, Petr. 43, 5). m. [root stip-, = Gr. στεφ- ; v. stipo; Sanscr.
sthapa-jami, to cause to stand, to fix, place; cf. stipula]. I. Lit., a log, stock, post, trunk of a tree, etc.
(class.; syn.: palus, sudes), Cat. 64. 289; Caes. B. G. 7, 73; id. B. C. 1. 27; Tib. 1, 1, 11 (21); Prop 4 (5), 2, 18;
Ov. M. 8; 451; id. F. 2, 642; 5, 506; Verg. A. 7.524; Curt, 8, 10, 30; 4, 3,10: I deligare ad stipitem. to a stake,
Suet. Ner. 29.- As a term of contempt, like our log, stock, post. of a stupid person: in me quidvis harum
rerum convenit, Quae sunt dicta in stultum, caudex, stipes, asinus, plumbeus, Ter. Heaut. 5, 1, 4 : qui,
tamquam truncus; atque stipes, si stetisset modo, posset sustinere tamen titulum consulatus, Cic. Pis. 9. 19;
cf. id. Har. Resp. 3,5; id. ap. Senat. 6, 14; Claud. in Eutr. 1. 126. - II. Transf, poet. 1. A tree Ov. F. 3, 37;
id. de Nuci, 32; Verg. A. 4. 444; Claud. Cons. Prob. et Olybr. 179.- 2. A branch of a tree, Luc. 9; 820;
Mart. 13. 19, 2: candelabri, the main stem of the candlestick, Vu1g. Exod. 37, 19." (Lewis, C.T. & Short, C.S.,
"A Latin Dictionary," Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1890, p.1760. Emphasis original)
19/03/2008
"crux ~ucis, f. [dub.] GENDER: masc., ENN. Ann.360, GRACCH.orat.36(Fest.p.150M). 1
Any wooden frame on which criminals were exposed to die, a cross (sts. also, a stake for impaling). b (in
various phrs. denoting crucifixion or impalement; see also CRVCIFIGO), scio ~ucem futuram mihi
sepulcrum PL Mil.372; ~uces ad ciuium Romanorum supplicia fixas CIC.Ver.3.6; Rab. Perd.11;
acuta si sedeam ~uce MAEC.poet.4(3).4; aliquis pendens in ~uce uota facit Ov.Pont.1.6.38; ~uces non
unius quidem generis SEN.Dial.6.20.3; e reuulso ~uci quartanis .. capillus (medetur) PLIN.Nat.28.41;
JUV.14.77; (cf.) Amythaonius .. nocturnas ~ucibus uolucres suspendit (i.e. as a charm) COL.10.349;
(transf.) ~uce uirginea moritura puella (sc. Andromeda) pependit MAN 5.552; axe uectus uno nutabat
~uce (i.e. the carriage-pole) pendula uiator STAT.Silv.4.3.28; - (in fig. phr.) illum ~ucem sibi ipsum
constituere, ex qua to eum ante detraxisses CIC.Q. fr. 1.2.6. b quem in in ~ucem egisti
CIC.Ver.5.164; Clu.187; in ~uce omnis suffixit B.Afr.66.4; sufetes.. ~uci adfigi iussit LIV.28.37.2;
33.36.3; omnis, quos ceperat, suffixit ~uci VELL.2.42.3; qui pastorem.. in ~ucem sustulit QUINT.
Inst.4.2.17. 2 (pregn.) Death by the cross, crucifixion; (in imprecations) i in malarn ~ucem (and sim.
phrs.), go and be hanged! b (transf.) extreme discomfort, torture. quid meritu's? ~ucem TER.An.621;
omnibus bonis ~uces ac tormenta minitatur CIC.Phil.13.21; peccat uter nostrum ~ucedignius?
HOR.S.2.7.47; (seruo) ~ucem scripsit QUINT.Dec1.380(p.424,I.25); ilicet parasitieae arti maxumam
malam ~ucem PL.Capt.;69; i in malam a me ~ucem Cas.641; i dierecte in masumam malam ~ucem
Poen.347; Ps.335; TER.Ph.368; (cf.) dextrouorsum auorsa it in malam ~ucem PL.Rud.276. b
summum ius antiqui summam putabant ~ucem COL.1.7.2; MART.10.82.6. 3 (colloq., often mala ~ux)
Anything which causes grief or annoyance, a plague, torment, etc. (of things) quae te mala ~ux agitat?
PL..Aul.631; mala ~us east (sors) quidem Cas.;.416,-(of persons) aliqua mala ~ux semper est quae
aliquid petat dul.522; quid ais, ~ux, stimulorum tritor? Per. 795; TER.Eu.383." (Glare, P.G.W., ed.,
"Oxford Latin Dictionary," [1968], Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1982, p.463. Emphasis original)
19/03/2008
"furca ~ae, j. [dub,] 1 An instrument with two arms or prongs, a fork. delapsae (cupae) ab lateribus
longuriis ~isque ab opere remouentur CAES.Civ. qui erexerant ad murum scalas., ~is ad id ipsum factis
detrudebantur LIV.28.3.7; ~a leuat..bicorni..terga suis nigro pendentia tigno Ov. Met.8.648; ~a de
carnario rapta PETR.95.8; piscatores circumdant retia ~isque subleuant PLIN.Nat.9.31; TAC. Ann.
3.46; (prov.) naturam expelles ~a, tamen usque recurret HOR.Ep.1.10.24. 2 A Y-shaped piece of
wood used as a support, forked prop. b (used for carrying loads). c (as a cross or gallows). ~as circum
offigitu, eo. perticas intendito CATO Agr.4.8.2; exacuunt alii uallos ~asque bicornis VERG.G.1.264;
spectauere ~is duodenos ab terra spectacula alta sustinentibus pedes LIV.1.35.9; nisi subdita ramo longa
laboranti ~a tulisset opem Nux 14; PLIN. Nat.14.32; - (in primitive building) ~is erectis et uirgulis
interpositis luto parietes texerant VITR.2.1.3; ~ae utrimque suspensae fulciebant casam SEN.Ep.90.10; -
(in taming bullocks) si eorum (sc. iuuencorum) colla in ~as destitutas incluserit VAR.R.1.20.2. b.
milites in ~a interposita tabella .. onera sua portare adseuerant FEST.p.149M; FRON.Str.4.1.7. c canes
.. uiui ~in a sabucea armo fixi PLIN.,Nat.29.57; latrones .. ~a figendos CALL.dig.48.19.28.15;
sacrilegos .. in ~a suspendisse ULP.dig.48.13.7(6). 3 A forked frame put on a man's neck as
punishment, his arms being, fastened to the projecting ends. ut quidem tu hodie canem et ~am teras
PL.Cas.389; caesum uirgis sub ~a Men.943: seruus per circum. .. ~am ferens ductus est CIC.Div.1.55;
LIV. 1.26.10; hominis ceruicem inseri ~ae SUET.Nero 49.2: (fig) ibis sub ~am prudens
HOR.S.2.7.66. 4 (pl.) The claws or pincer; (of a crab). cancrorum: " ~as APUL.Apol.35 5 ~ae
Caudinae, The Caudine Forks (see FVRCVLAE). excercitum nostrum..apud Caudinas ~as sub iugum a
Samnitibus missum V.MAX.5.1 ext .5; 7.2. ext.17; LUC.2.138." (Glare, P.G.W., ed., "Oxford Latin
Dictionary," [1968], Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1982, p.748. Emphasis original)
19/03/2008
"palus 1, m. Also ~um ~i, n. [ < *pak-slos (PANGO) ; cf. Gk. passalos] 1 A length of
unsplit wood, post, stake. est quasi ~o pectus tundat PL.Rud.1290; ~os, siccos dolato CATO Agr.37.3;
alterum (pedawentum) ~us (est) e pertica VAR.R.1.8.4; teneram ~is adiungere uitem TIB. 1.7.;3; hic annus
nondum uehementem ~um aut ridicam desiderat COL.4.12.1; saepes. pro ~is elephantorum dentibus fieri
PLIN.Nat.8.31; - (collect. sg.) caesae harundinis uel ~i compendium .. ad fructuarium pertinet
PAUL.dig. 7 1.59.2; CIL 10.114; - (used for marching boundaries) in qnibusdam .. regionibus ~os pro
terminis obseruant SIC. FL.agrim.p.102; actuarios ~os suo quemque numem inscriptos .. defigemus
HYG.GR.agrim.p.155; - (applied to the phallus of a Priapus) obsceno .. ruber porrectus ab inguine ~us
HOR.S.1.8.5; - neut.) quid? in non uides in uineis, quod tria ~a habeant, tripales dici? VAR.Men.179.
2 (of var. spec. objects) : a A wooden peg or pin. b a wooden pile. c a wooden pole serving as a
dummy in fighting-practice. d the stake to which condemned persons were tied for execution. e the
wooden sword of the seculores; ~us primus, the leader of the sectctores. f a dibble. a non sum
dignus prae to ~urn ut figam in parietem PL. Mil. 1140; rusticus emeritum ~o suspendat aratrum
Ov.Fast. 1.655; (used in repairing a ship) quasi supellex pellionis, ~us ~o proxtimust PL.Men.404. b
quod ibi omnia opera et publica et priuata sub fundamentis .. habeant ~os VITR. 2.9.11; sin. .. mollis locus
erit ~is ustilatis..(fundarnenta) configantur 5.12.6. c quis non uidit uulnera ~i? JUV. 6.247; dicite. quando
ad ~um gemat usor Asyli 6.267; - (in fig. phr.) exerceamur ad ~um SEN.Ep.18.3. d ~us destitutus est in
foro, eoque adductus .. nobilissimus homo M. Marius GRACCH.orat.45; capitibus obuolutis e carcere ad
~um atque ad necem rapiebantur CIC.Ver.5.72; i, lictor, deliga ad ~um LIV.8.7.19; cum .. deligatis ad ~um
noxiis carnifex deesset SUET.C1.3.34.1 e VRBICO SECVTORI PRIMO ~O NATION FLORENTIN CIL
5.5933; 6.10189. f ad lineam ~o grana bina aut terna demittito CATO Agr.161.1; ~o prius locum ne
feceris, quo taleam demittas 45.2; caulis eius tener est.. radice una, ceu ~o in terram demissa PLIN. Nat.
27.14." (Glare, P.G.W., ed., "Oxford Latin Dictionary," [1968], Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1982, p.1287.
Emphasis original)
19/03/2008
"Historians generally believe that the crux compacta, consisting of a vertical stake and a transverse beam
onto which the arms are tied or nailed, is a Roman invention combining native execution practices with those
acquired from contact with neighboring peoples. There were several predecessors to crucifixion in the
ancient Near East: impalement and postmortem hanging. The former involved forcing living prisoners or
slaves down through pointed stakes and is illustrated in Assyrian reliefs; the oldest known reference to it is
in the Code of Hammurabi, dating to 1700 BC. The latter was practiced by the ancient Israelites; after being
stoned to death, idolators and blasphemers were hung on trees to show that they were accursed by God (cf.
Deuteronomy 21:23), tho the Law forbid such corpses to remain on the tree overnight." (Leolaia, "The facts
on crucifixion, stauros, and the `torture stake'," Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June, 2005)
19/03/2008
"The ancient Persians however executed their criminals and prisoners by nailing them while still alive to
trees and poles. The Theological Dictionary of the New Testament notes that `the Persians invented or first
used this mode of execution. They probably did so in order not to defile the earth, which was consecrated to
Ormuzd, by the body of the person executed' (p. 16). What distinguished this practice from postmortem
hanging was that the victim was still alive when the nails were driven into him. It is thought that the
references to `hanging' in Ezra 6:11 and Esther 7:9-10 are of Persian crucifixion, though the texts themselves
are not specific. The Greco-Persian Wars (499-479 BC) introduced the Greeks to this form of execution and
Herodotus (Historiarum, 1.128.2, 3.125.3, 3.132.2, 3.159.1, 4.43.2-7, 6.30.1, 7.194) makes frequent reference
to its use by the Persians (cf. also Thucydides, Historia 1.110.3, on its use in Egypt at the time). For
instance, Herodotus mentions a viceroy named Sandoces, son of Thamasius, who was `taken and crucified
(anestauróse) by Darius' but then Darius had a change of heart and released Sandoces so that `he thus
escaped with his life from being put to death by Darius' (7.194). This passage clearly indicates that Sandoces
was still alive when he was `crucified' (the verb, an inflected form of anastauroó, is obviously a form of
stauros). The shape of the instrument used in Persian crucifixion also varied considerably. Herodotus
said that it was comprised of `boards' (9.120), whereas Plutarch shows that even four vertical stakes were
used for a single victim (Artaxerxes, 17.5). Apparently, the appearance of the apparatus did not matter to
the Persians, as long as it performed its function." (Leolaia, "The facts on crucifixion, stauros, and the
`torture stake'," Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June, 2005)
19/03/2008
"From their interaction with the Persians, the Greeks adopted crucifixion as a military strategy. It was
practiced especially by Alexander the Great in his wars against the Persians (336-323 BC). Thus, after the
siege of Tyre came to an end in 332 BC, about `two thousand ... hung fixed to stakes over a huge stretch of
the shore' (Curtius Rufus, Historia Alexandri 4.4.17; cf. also Plutarch, Alexander 7.2 on Alexander's
crucifixion of his Persian physician). After Alexander's death, his successors (the Diadochi) continued to
use Persian-style crucifixion against their enemies (cf. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica 16.61.2),
but the Greeks never fully integrated it into their legal system as a civil penalty. The Greeks were generally
repelled by such a brutal display (cf. Herodotus, Historiarum 7.138, 9.78). Likely as a result of the Greek
siege of Tyre, the Phoenicians and Carthaginians adopted the mass-crucifixion tactic for use in war (cf.
Valerius Maximus, Memorabilium 2.7; Silius Italicus, Punica 2.344). During the Punic Wars (264-146
B.C.), the Romans encountered the Phoenician version of crucifixion and swiftly appropriated it as a means
of capital punishment for slaves. Straying away from the purpose the Persians intended it for, the Romans
converted it into a brutal torture machine. This was accomplished by adding a second piece of wood called
the patibulum to the execution stake, as well as a thorn-shaped sedile upon which the victim rested his
weight. Prior to the invention of crucifixion, the Romans used the patibulum to humiliate condemned
slaves marching to their execution. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (first century B.C.) described this ancient
practice: `A Roman citizen of no obscure station, having ordered one of his slaves to be put to death,
delivered him to his fellow-slaves to be led away, and in order that his punishment might be witnessed by
all, directed them to drag him through the Forum and every other conspicuous part of the city as they
whipped him, and that he should go ahead of the procession which the Romans were at the time conducting
in honour of the god. The men ordered to lead the slave to his punishment, having stretched out both hands
and fastened them to a piece of wood (tas kheiras apoteinantes amphoteras kai xuló prosdésantes) which
extended across his chest and shoulders as far as his wrists, followed him, tearing his naked body with
whips' (Roman Antiquities, 7.69.1-2)." (Leolaia, "The facts on crucifixion, stauros, and the `torture stake',"
Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June, 2005)
19/03/2008
"This patibulum-bearing punishment, during which a slave is whipped and lead through the city, was
practiced in pre-Republican times and was the direct ancestor of the portion of the crucifixion ritual in which
the victim carries his own cross. It did not always precede execution; it was often used for humiliation. Other
descriptions of this early form of punishment can be found in Livy and Plutarch, who both describe its use
in pre-Republican times and reveal that the wood carried by the victim was also called a furca `fork'. `At
an early hour of the day appointed for the games, before the show had begun, a certain householder had
driven his slave, bearing a yoke (furca), through the midst of the circus, scourging the culprit as he went'
(Livy, Roman History 2.36.1). `A certain man had handed over one of his slaves, with orders to scourge
him through the forum, and then put him to death. While they were executing this commission and
tormenting the poor wretch, whose pain and suffering made him writhe and twist himself horribly, the sacred
procession in honor of Jupiter chanced to come up behind....And it was a severe punishment for a slave
who had committed a fault, if he was obliged to take the piece of wood (xulon) with which they prop up
the pole of a wagon, and carry it around through the neighborhood. For he who had been seen undergoing
this punishment no longer had any credit in his own or neighboring households. And he was called a
'furcifer' (phourkipher), for what the Greeks call a prop, or support, is called 'furca' (phourkan) by the
Romans' (Plutarch, Coriolanus 24.4-5). It is this piece of wood that centuries later became the crossbeam in
the Roman cross. The crux compacta came into existence when Phoenician crucifixion was fused with the
pre-existing Roman patibulum-bearing punishment. Not only was the errant slave punished by being
paraded throughout the city yoked to a patibulum, but he now died suspended from it. But when did this
happen? We need to examine the earliest known descriptions of the kind of crucifixion adopted by the
Romans and the specific terms they used to refer to it." (Leolaia, "The facts on crucifixion, stauros, and
the `torture stake'," Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June, 2005)
20/03/2008
"patibulatus ~a ~um, a. [NEXT + - ATVS 2] Fastened to a yoke or gibbet. ita te forabunt ~urn peruias
stimulis PL.Mos.56; extiabili nexu ~um APUL.Met.4.10. patibulum ~i, n. Also ~us m. [PATEO
+ -BVLVM] GENDER: ~os (acc. pl.) CLOD.hist.3. 1 A fork-shaped yoke or gibbet to which criminals
were fastened. ~um ferat per urbem, deinde adfigatur cruci PL.fr.48; tibi Marcelli statua pro ~o in clientis
Marcellorum fuit? CIC.Ver.4.90; ~o eminems affigebatur SAL.Hist.3.9; ~o pendere districtum
SEN.Ep.101.12; extendendae per ~um manus fr.(Haase p.414); TAC.Hist.4.3; Ann.14.33; ~o suffigi
APUL.Met.6.31. 2 A fork-shaped prop for vines. CATO Agr.26; 68; Nouariensis agricola .. inpositis ..
~is palmites circumuoluit PLIN.Nat.17.212. 3 A bar for fastening a door (acc. Non. p.366M). si quisquam
... posticum nostrum pepulerit, ~o hoc in caput diffringam TITIN.com.31." (Glare, P.G.W., ed., "Oxford
Latin Dictionary," [1968], Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1982, p.1308. Emphasis original)
20/03/2008
"stipes ~itis, m. [perh. cogn. W. STIPO] FORMS: nom. stips PETR.43.5; abl. stipe
Ov.Met. 15.525 (s.v.l.). 1 The trunk or bole (of a tree), or its lower part. b the remains of a
tree-trunk left in the ground, stump. c a hardened or woody branch. recto proceras ~ite laurus
CATUL.64.289; consternunt terram concusso ~ite frondes VERG.A.4.444; cum pirus inuito ~ite mala tulit
PROP.4.2.18; dentibus ille (sc. aper) ferox in querno ~ite tritis inminet exitio Ov.Met.8.369; artores ..
procerae, ~ites hedera contexerat CURT. 7.9.15; 8.4.7; quercus. diffusas patulo laxabat ~ite frondes SIL..5.487;
APUL.Met.8.22; (app. dist. from truncus) bones, cum ad arborem uenerint, fortiter retinere
(oportet) .. , ne . . cornu bos ad ~item offendat aut extremo iugo truncum delibet COL..2.2.26;-(as a
material) ~es acernus ezam, properanti falce dolatus PROP.4.2.59; uiridi de ~ite factas. . faces
Ov.lb.235;-(contempt. applied to a tree showing no signs of life) (cerasus) bacas exire
uetabit..(ficus) ~es inanis erit Nux 32; (transj.) in niueo uirides ~ite (sc. of a leek) cerne
comas MART.13.19.2. b ueneror, seu ~es habet desertus in agris seu uetus in triuio ftorida serta lapis
TIB.1.1.11; ni rota..~itis occursu fracta .. fuisset Ov.Met.15.523. c(Medea) arenti ramo. .oliuae
omnia confudit .. ecce uetus calido uersatus ~es aeno fit uiridis Ov.Met. 7.279; ~ite..diro uirgas mentita
Sabaeas toxica LUC. 9.820. 2 A stout stick (natural or prepared) used for various purposes, stake, post,
etc. b (as a weapon). c a stick used as fuel. d a stick (as a type of what is lifeless) ; (hence,
as a term of abuse for someone stupid). haec (sc. Nauis) medium ostendit radiato ~ite malum
CIC.Arat.638(392); ibi sudis ~itesque praeacutos defigit CAES.Civ:1.27.3; arcae ~itibus robusteis
et catenis inclusae VITR.5.12.3; alii per obscena ~item egerunt SEN.Dial. 6.20.3; granaria, quae ex tabulis
fieri solent, ita aedium sunt, si ~ites eorum in terra defossi sunt JAVOL.dig.19.1.18; - (in a fence)
emporium lapide strauerunt ~itibusque saepserunt LIV.41.27.8; COL.9.1.3; (as a stake for punishment, tying
tip, etc.) ad supplicium .. acti ~itibus singulis pendent SEN.Dial.7.19.3; buculos .. ad ~ites religato
COL.6.2.4; SUET.Nero 29; - (in an oil- or wine- press) inter binos stipites uectibus locum P XXII,
alteris uasis .. ab ~ite extremo ad parietem qui pone arbores est P XX CATO Agr.18.2; in uasa uinaria ~ites
arboresque binis pedibus altiores facito 19.1; - (as a target in sword practice) non te paganica thermis
praeparat aut nudi ~itis ictus hebes MART.7.32.8. b hic torre armatus obusto, ~itis hic grauidi nodis
VERG.A.7.507; rem. terox saxis ~itibusque gerit Ov.Fast.1.570; CURT. 9.7.21; letiforo ~ite
SEN.Her.O.209; STAT.Theb.4.l56. c uestigat .. focum .. paruulus exusto remanebat ~ite
fumus Mor.8; cassa .. seducto ~ite flamma perit Ov.Rem.446; Met.8.451; cremasse suum
fertur sub ~ite natum (sc. Meleagrum) Thestias Tr.1.7.17; flagranti ~ite dextra minax terris incendia
portat PETR.124,l.263; (cf.) inscripsit .. semasto ~ite nomen (i.e. in charcoal) LUC.8.792. d
cum hoc homine an cum ~ite. in foro constitisses, nihil crederes interesse CIC.Red.Sen.14; in me quiduis
harum rerum conuenit quae sunt dicta in stulto, caudex ~es asinu' plumbeus TER.Hau.877; - item illum qui
quorum hominum esset nesciremus CIC.Har.5; ille stips .. nescio cui terrae filio patrimonium elegauit
PETR.43.5." (Glare, P.G.W., ed., "Oxford Latin Dictionary," [1968], Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1982, p.1821.
Emphasis original).
20/03/2008
"According to Roman practice, the procedure of crucifixion would then be as follows. First, there was the
legal conviction. Only in extraordinary cases, such as in times of war, did this occur at the place of execution
itself. If the execution took place at somewhere other than the place of sentencing, the condemned man
carried the patibulum to the spot which was usually outside the town. The expression `to bear the cross
(stauros)' which is a typical description of the punishment of slaves has its origin here. At the place of
execution the victim was stripped and scourged. He may also have been previously scourged. This practice
was an important part of crucifixion which took place between sentencing and execution. The condemned
man was tied with outstretched arms to the cross-beam which was presumably laid upon his shoulders.
Nailing is testified to only in isolated instances (Hdt., 9, 120, 4; 7, 33). It is uncertain whether this was done
to the feet as well as to the hands. (In the post-resurrection narrative; of Jesus' appearances, Jn. 20:20, 25 ff.
mentions Jesus' hands, and Lk. 24:39 his hands and feet.) The victim was then hoisted on to the stake with
the cross beam. Death came slowly - after extraordinary agony, probably through exhaustion or suffocation.
The body could be left on the scaffold to rot or provide food for predatory animals and carrion crows. There
is evidence that the body was occasionally given to relatives or acquaintances." (Brown, C., ed., "The New
International Dictionary of New Testament Theology: Vol. 1: A-F," Zondervan: Grand Rapids MI, 1975,
pp.392-393)
24/03/2008
"Watchtower publications show Jesus on an upright stake instead of on a traditional cross because
stauros in classical Greek meant merely an upright stake, or pale. The cross is an ancient pagan sign, a
Tau, for the Babylonian god Tammuz. It was adopted by Christendom after the great apostasy in order to
curry favor with the pagans. ["Reasoning from the Scriptures," Watchtower Tract & Bible Society: Brooklyn
NY, 1985, pp.89-93]. The Watchtower's use of the phrase `classical Greek' will sound scholarly to the
unsuspecting reader, who will assume that the Watchtower has again provided him with the ancient truths
of the Bible that apostate Christendom has lost. But one significant fact is omitted here: The New Testament
was not written in classical Greek, the form of Greek spoken between 1000 and 330 B.C., so it does not matter
what stauros meant in that dialect. The manuscripts of the New Testament are in Koine Greek-which is
Hellenistic rather than classical Greek-in which stauros can be translated as (1) an upright stake with a
cross-beam above it, (2) two intersecting beams of equal length, or (3) a vertical, pointed stake. [Kittel, G. &
Friedrich, G., eds., "Theological Dictionary of the New Testament," Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, 1971,
p.7:572]" (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, p.99)
24/03/2008
"During an execution in which a stauros was used, the condemned criminal would carry a crossbeam
(known in Latin as the patibulum) to the place where the stake (stipes) had already been erected. He
was then tied or nailed to the beam he had carried, which was placed atop the erect pale. [Kittel, G. &
Friedrich, G., eds., "Theological Dictionary of the New Testament," Eerdmans: Grand Rapids MI, 1971,
p.7:573] The executioners would not have had the criminal carry the beam to the place of execution, only to
take it from him, dig a hole for it, and mount him upon it. The vertical stake would already have been planted
for the patibulum to be hung upon it. So the Watchtower is right in saying that Jesus was killed on a
stake but wrong in denying that there was a crossbeam to which he was nailed and which hung atop this
stake. If the New Testament authors wished to convey that Christ died on a torture stake, it is likely that
they would have used the Greek word skolops. However, the Biblical writers never use this word to
describe the instrument of Christ's death." (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers:
El Cajon CA, 2001, pp.99-100)
24/03/2008
"Aside from the Greek evidence, the New Testament provides further support for the Crucifixion. For
example, if Jesus was impaled through both palms with one nail-as Watchtower literature depicts ["You
Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY, 1982, p.170] -
Scripture would not say that he had prints of the nails in his hands (John 20:25). If the Lord had been
executed on a `torture stake' (this is how the NWT renders the word stauros), the Roman soldiers would
not have used two nails to pierce his hands. Two nails would only be necessary if his arms were
outstretched on a crossbeam." (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon
CA, 2001, pp.100-101. Emphasis original)
24/03/2008
"Watchtower literature states that the symbol of the cross comes from Tau, the initial letter of the name
Tammuz, a Babylonian god. Such misinformation originated in Alexander Hislop's highly inaccurate book
The Two Babylons, from which the Watchtower freely quotes. But is the Tau simply a pagan sign? If
so, God himself commands that a pagan mark (Tau) be placed on the foreheads of the righteous in Ezekiel
9:4, 6-eight verses after Tammuz worship is repudiated (Ez. 8:14) ! In fact, early Christian writers such as
Tertullian and Origen considered this to be a prefigurement of the cross of Christ. [Tertullian, "Against
Marcion", 3:22; "Letter of Barnabas," 9] If Jehovah has no qualms about using a crosslike symbol, the
Jehovah's Witnesses should not, either." (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers:
El Cajon CA, 2001, pp.100-101)
24/03/2008
"Are there pagan symbols that predate Christianity and resemble the cross? Yes, just as there are countless
references in paganism to obelisks and other objects that look like a `torture stake.' The symbol of two
intersecting lines can certainly be found in ancient cultures, as can straight lines, curves, triangles,
crescents, squares, and any other shape imaginable. The fact that some pagan cultures used a crosslike
symbol certainly in no way precluded the use of a crossbeam in the Roman executions in first century
Palestine - nor does it mean that the shape of the cross was used in pagan worship or, especially, that the
cross was forced upon Christian worship despite the facts of Christ's death. Early Christians did not adopt
the cross as a pagan worship symbol that they were enthused by and wanted to use in pagan worship. The
early Christians used the symbol of the cross for the simple reason that Christ died on one." (Evert, J.,
"Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, p.101)
24/03/2008
"Moreover, the use of the sign of the cross is clearly attested in ancient sources. As Tertullian, for example,
remarked in the second century: `In all our travels, in our coming in and going out, in putting on our clothes
and our shoes, at table, in going to rest, whatever employment occupies us, we mark our forehead with the
sign of the cross.' ["The Chaplet" ("De Corona") 3] He even mentions this among other practices of
apostolic origin. In contrast, there is no historical evidence of Christians marking themselves with the sign
of the `torture stake.'" (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001,
p.101)
24/03/2008
"Another important consideration is that no one has discovered any ancient Christian art depicting Christ
on a stake. If anything, all the evidence points to a cruciform shape. One early depiction of Christ's death,
known as the Palatine crucifix, dates from the second century during the reign of the Roman emperor
Septimius Severus (A.D. 198-211). [Marucchi, O., "Manual of Christian Archaeology," St. Anthony Guild
Press: Paterson NJ, 1935, p.44] Over a century ago, Roman archaeologists discovered this ancient graffito
scratched into a wall on the Palatine Hill in Rome. The carving depicts a boy reverencing his God, who is
crucified with arms outstretched and nailed to a crossbeam. (The caption scrawled beneath the crucifix
reads, `Alexamenos adores his God.') The crucified God is given the head of a jackass, since the purpose of
the depiction was to mock Alexamenos's Christian faith." (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses,"
Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, pp.101-102. Emphasis original)
24/03/2008
"Christians were already established at Puteoli-Paul's fame had preceded him there-and the missionaries
were invited to stay with them for a time. In an extraordinary concession Julius allowed Paul a week in
Puteoli [Acts 28:13-15], unquestionably a favor in return for Paul's crucial services on the voyage. It may be
from this early congregation that the faith expanded around the Bay of Naples, because there were
Christians in nearby Herculaneum shortly afterward. One of the houses in that resort town, today liberated
from its lava burial by Mt. Vesuvius, shows the clear outlines of a metal cross that had been set in the wall
over a charred prie-dieu in an upstairs room. The cross evidently is just as old a Christian symbol as the
fish." (Maier, P.L., "First Christians: Pentecost and the Spread of Christianity," Mowbrays: London, 1976,
p.140)
24/03/2008
"A primitive Christian oratory in the upper room of the so-called `House of the Bicentenary' at Herculaneum.
A whitish stuccoed panel shows the imprint of a large cross, probably metallic, that had been removed or
possibly used as a stamping device. Before it are the remains of a small wooden altar, charred by lava from
the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D." (Maier, P.L., "First Christians: Pentecost and the Spread of
Christianity," Mowbrays: London, 1976, p.141)
24/03/2008
"In 1939 excavations at Herculaneum, the sister city of Pompeii (destroyed in 78 A.D. by volcano) produced
a house where a wooden cross had been nailed to the wall of a room. According to Buried History, (Vol.
10, No. 1, March 1974 p.15): `Below this (cross) was a cupboard with a step in front. This has considered to
be in the shape of an ara or shrine, but could well have been used as a place of prayer... . If this
interpretation is correct, and the excavators are strongly in favor of the Christian significance of symbol and
furnishings, then here we have the example of an early house church." (Watters, R., "The Cross," Reprinted
from "Refuting Jehovah's Witnesses," Bethel Ministries: Manhattan Beach CA, 1996," 4 July 2007.
http://www.freeminds.org/doctrine/cross.htm)
24/03/2008
"Additional archaeological evidence to support Christ's death on a cross includes an example from the latter
part of the first century. Recently unearthed in the city of Herculaneum is a primitive Christian oratory in the
upper room of the so-called `House of Bicentenary' at Herculaneum. A whitish stuccoed panel shows the
imprint of a large cross, probably metallic, that had been removed.... Before it are the remains of a small
wooden altar, charred by lava from the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 A.D. [Maier, P.L., "First Christians:
Pentecost and the Spread of Christianity," Harper & Row: New York, 1976, 141] Because of the date of the
volcanic eruption, the image of the cross must have been painted within fifty years of the Crucifixion. Again,
it is unreasonable to think that the shape of the instrument of Christ's death was forgotten or misrepresented
so soon after the Crucifixion." (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA,
2001, p.102)
24/03/2008
"Consider yet another factor. Only thirty years after the death of Christ, St. Peter was also crucified. This
event was spoken of in the second century by Tertullian, and again by Origen: `Peter was crucified at Rome
with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer.' [Eusebius, "Ecclesiastical History," 2:i
Tertullian adds: `If you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is ever within reach. How fortunate is
this Church for which the apostles have poured out their whole teaching with their blood, where Peter has
emulated the Passion of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John [the Baptist]." [Tertullian,
"The Prescription against Heretics," 35]. In another work he again mentions Peter's crucifixion: `The budding
faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There Peter was girded by another, since he was bound to the cross."
[Tertullian, "Antidote for the Scorpion's Sting," 15] Clearly these examples confirm that a cross, not a torture
stake, was used as the instrument of Christ's death. [Witnesses cannot respond that the word stauros is
being mistranslated as `cross,' since Tertullian's surviving writings are not in Greek but Latin, from which we
get the words cross (crux) and crucify (crucifigere).] (Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses,"
Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, pp.102-103l)
24/03/2008
"Saints Irenaeus and Justin Martyr (both recognized by the Watchtower as `leading religious teachers in the
early centuries' after Christ's birth' ["Should You Believe in the Trinity?," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society:
Brooklyn, 1989, p.7) confirm that Jesus did not die on a torture stake. Irenaeus said, `The very form of the
cross, too, has five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the
person rests who is fixed by the nails.' [Irenaeus, "Against Heresies," 2:4:24] After speaking of how Moses'
outstretched arms were a prefiguring of the cross of Christ, ["Dialogue with Trypho the Jew," 90] Justin
Martyr explains how the cross was erected: `For the one beam is placed upright ... [and] the other beam is
fitted on to it.' [Ibid., 91] Both of these patristic writings date within approximately a century of the life of St.
John the apostle, and Irenaeus was taught by Polycarp, a disciple of John. Once again, the cross and not the
upright stake is clearly attested to in these writings. On the other hand, the Watchtower has been unable to
furnish any early Christian evidence that Jesus was put to death on a pale, or upright stake." (Evert, J.,
"Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, p.103)
24/03/2008
"Evidence for the Crucifixion has continued to grow, as can be seen in recent discoveries. In 1968, the
remains of a crucified man from A.D. 70 were found in a burial cave at Giv'at ha-Mivtar in Jerusalem. The
findings of the archaeologists were released in the report `Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal
Remains from Giv'at ha-Mivtar,' published in the Israel Exploration Journal and written by N. Haas of the
department of anatomy at Hebrew University. After investigating the remains of the man executed under
Roman rule (as Christ was), he explained that `the upper limbs were stretched out, each stabbed by a nail in
the forearm.' [Bower, C.F., "Cross or Torture Stake?" This Rock, October 1991, 9] (Evert, J., "Answering
Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, pp.103-104. Emphasis original)
25/03/2008
"In harmony with such findings, earlier Watchtower literature repeatedly depicted Christ crucified or Christ
carrying his cross, ["The Photo Drama of Creation," International Bible Students Association: Brooklyn NY,
1914, 12, 69, 88; Rutherford, J.F., "The Harp of God," Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY,
1928, 113; Rutherford, J.F., "Life," Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY, 1929, 198] affirming as
a fact that `Jesus was crucified upon the cross.' ["Life," 216]. Ironically, beside Charles Taze Russell's
tombstone is a massive pyramid emblazoned with a cross-and-crown symbol. In 1928, the Watchtower
announced that this `Cross and Crown' symbol, which had been used for years on the cover of Zion's
Watch Tower and The Watch Tower, `to Brother Rutherford's mind was Babylonish and should be
discontinued.' ["1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses," Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY,
1974, 148]. So, the image of the cross was officially dropped from Watchtower publications in 1931. [Ibid]"
(Evert, J., "Answering Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, p.104)
25/03/2008
"Witnesses often object to the practice of wearing a cross as a necklace or as any form of adornment. To the
mind of a Witness, it would be like wearing a miniature electric chair around your neck after your friend had
died in one. Yet, Christians do not glory in the cross because of what it did to Jesus but because of what
Jesus did through it! Paul knew that this would be a stumbling block to some, foolishness to others (I Cor.
1:23), but it is the very power of God (I Cor. 1:18). For this reason, he said, `For I resolved to know nothing
while I was with you except Jesus Christ, and him crucified' (I Cor. 2:2; NAB)." (Evert, J., "Answering
Jehovah's Witnesses," Catholic Answers: El Cajon CA, 2001, p.104)
25/03/2008
"In Italy the town of Herculaneum lies at the foot of the volcano Vesuvius and, like the city of Pompeii ten
miles to the east, was destroyed by the eruption of that volcano in A.D. 79. Here in an upper room of the so-
called Bicentenary House attention was attracted by the wall mark shown in the present photograph. It is a
depression in a stucco panel and could be where an object of the same shape had been affixed to the wall
and then removed. There are nail holes in the depression and also elsewhere in the panel. One theory sees
the shape of the depression as that of a Latin cross (cf. p. 352), and supposes that if a wooden cross had
been nailed to the wall at this point, then removed and a wooden covering nailed over the area, it would
account for what can still be seen. In that case the upper room with this cross could have been a sort of
private Christian chapel, and the removal of the cross and the covering over of the area could have been
done either by the Christians themselves or by others, and a likely time for this might have been during
persecution such as that by Nero in A.D. 64. ... THE PIECE of wooden furniture shown in this photograph
stood against the wall beneath the panel with the cross-shaped mark in the upper room in the Bicentenary
House at Herculaneum. When found it was entirely covered with the deposit of the volcanic eruption of
A.D. 79. If the mark in the wall above is taken as a cross, then the stand below could be explained as a sort of
altar." (Finegan, J., "The Archeology of the New Testament: The Life of Jesus and the Beginning of the
Early Church," [1969], Princeton University Press: Princeton NJ, Revised edition, 1992, pp.374-375. Emphasis
original)
27/03/2008
"xulon, on, to (Hom. + ; inscr. pap., LXX, Philo, Joseph. Test. 12 Patr.) 1. wood Dg. 2: 2; LJ 1: 5 (cf.
lithos 1a). pan x. thuinon every kind of citron wood Rv 18: 12a. x. timiotaton very precious wood vs.
12b. Pl. wood as building materials (PFlor. 16, 23) 1 Cor 3: 12; for making idols xula k. lithous (Sextus 568)
together w. other materials 2 CL1 1: 6; PK 2 p. 14, 13. As fuel (POxy. 1144, 15 xula eis thusian; Gen 22: 3, 6;
Lev 1: 7) MPol 1:3: 1; Hs 4: 4. 2. of objects made of wood - a. of the wooden stocks for the feet of a
prisoner (Hdt. 6, 75; 9, 37; Lysias 10, 16; Aristoph., Eq. :367; 394; 705; also , Charito 4, 2, 6: Dit., Or. 483. 181
[s. the note]; Job 33: 11) tous podas esphalisato auton eis to xulon he fastened their feet to the stocks Ac
16: 24. b. the pole (Maxim. Tyr. 2, 8b) on which Moses raised the brass serpent (Num 21: 8f) B 12: 7.
Club, cudgel (Hdt. 2, 63; 4, 180; Polyb. 6, 37, 3; Herodian 7, 7, 4; PHal. 1, 187: PTebt. 304, 10; Jos., Bell. 2,
176, Vi. 233) pl. (w. machairai) Mt 26: 47, 55; Mk 14: 43, 48; Lk 22: 52. c. gallows, in NT cross (Alexis
Com. [IV BC] 220, 10 anapegnumi epi tou xulou; Gen 40: 19; Dt 21:23; Josh 10: 26; Esth 5: 14; 6: 4 Philo, Somn.
2, 213; Jos., Ant. 11, 246) B 8: 5, cf. vs 1: 12: 1 (fr an apocr. prophetic writing, perh. 4 Esdr 5: 5. Cf.
UHolzmeister, Verb. Dom. 21. '41, 69-73). kremasai epi xulou hang on the cross Ac 5: 30; 10:39. o
kremamenos epi xulou Gal 3: 13 (Dt 21: 23) kathalein apo tou x. take down fr. the cross (cf. Josh 10: 27) Ac
13: 29. paschein epi xulou B 5: 13. tas amartias anapherein epi to x. bear the sins on (or to) the cross,
to destroy them on the cross 1 Pt 2: 24 = Pol 8: 1. - WSvLeeuwen, NThSt 24, '41, 68-81. 3. tree (this
usage is perceptible in Eur., Hdt. Theophr.,. H.P1. 5, 4, 7; Fgm, Iamb. Adesp. 17 Diehl; PTebt. 5, 205 [118 BC];
PFlor. 152, 4; Gen 1: 29; 2: 9; 3: 1ff; Isa 14: 8; Eccl 2: 5) Dg 12: 8 ugron, xeron x. a green, a dry tree Lk 23: 31
(s. xeros 1 and AJBHiggins, ET 57, '45/'46, 292-4). pagkarpon x. a tree bearing all kinds of fruit Dg 12 1: 1. x.
akarpon a tree without (edible) fruit (of the elm) Hs 2: 3. xulo eauton sumballein compare oneself to a
tree 1 Cl 23: 4a; 2 CL1 11: 3 (both script. quots. of unknown orig.). ta phulla tou x. Rv 22: 2 b; karpos tou x. 1
Cl 23: 4b. Of trees by water-courses B 11: 6 (Ps l: 3). x. gnoseos Dg 12: 2a (cf. Gen 2: 9, 17). x. (tes) zoes Rv 2:
7, 22: 2a (RSchran, BZ 24, '40, 191-8). 14, 19; Dg 12: 2b (cf. zoe) end; LvSybel, Xulon zoes: ZNW 19, '20, 85-91;
UHolmberg, D. Baum d. Lebens '23, HBergema, De Boom des Levens in Schrift en historie, Diss. Hilversum
'38; JSchmeider, TW V 36-40. M-M. B. 50; 1385." (Arndt, W.F. & Gingrich, F.W., "A Greek-English Lexicon of
the New Testament and Other Early Christian literature," University of Chicago Press: Chicago IL, Fourth
edition, 1952, Revised, 1957, p.551)
27/03/2008
"xulon, -on, to, [in LXX chiefly for 'ets;] 1. wood: 1 Co 3:12, Re 18:12. a piece of wood, hence,
anything made of wood, as, (a) a cudgel, staff: pl., Mt 26:47,55, Mk 14:43, 48, Lk 22:52; (b) stocks, for
confining the feet (Jb 33:11, suwm) : Ac 16:24; (c) a beam to which malefactors were bound (late Gk.), in LXX,
of a gibbet (De 21:22,23), in NT, of the Cross: Ac 5:30 10:39 13:29, Ga 3:13, 1 Pe 2:24. 3. In late writers (v. MM,
xvii), a tree (Ge 1:29, Is 14:8, al.) : Lk 23:31; x. tes zoes, Re 2:7 22:2, 14, 19." (Abbott-Smith, G., "A Manual
Greek Lexicon of the New Testament," [1921], T. & T. Clark: Edinburgh, Third edition, 1937, Reprinted, 1956,
p.408. My transliteration)
27/03/2008
"We surely were not trying to take cheap shots at the pope or the Catholic Church, nor were we criticizing
Catholics. The Catholic Church occupies a very significant position in the world and claims to be the way of
salvation for hundreds of millions of people. Any organization that assumes that position should be willing
to submit to scrutiny and criticism. All who criticize have the obligation to be truthful in presenting the facts
and fair and objective in assessing such. In both respects we try to live up to that obligation.-ED." ("From
Our Readers," Awake!, August 22, 1984, p.28)
27/03/2008
"xulon [u], to (pl. spelt xulea Abh. Ber1. Akad. 1928(6).32 ;Cos. v. B.C.)), wood cut and ready for use,
firewood, timber, etc., Hom., mostly in pl., Il.8.507, 547;. Od.14.418; x. neia ship-timber, Hes.Op. 808;
x.. naupegesima Th.7.25; X.An.6,4.4, PL.Lg.706b, D.17.28; x.. tetragona logs cut square, Hdt.I.186, cf,
Pl.Prt.325d. Arist.EN 1109b7. 2. in pl., also, the wood-market, epi xula ievai Ar.Fr. 403. II. in sg.,
piece of wood, log, beam, post, once in Hom., x.. auon .. e spudos e peukes Il.23.327; x. sukinon spoon
made of fig wood, PL.Hp.Ma.291c; peg or lever, Arist.MA701b9; perch, epi xulou katheudein
Ar.Nu.1431: by poet. periphr., 'Argous xulon A.Fr.20; `ippoio kakon x.., of the Trojan horse, AP9.152
(Agath.): hence anything made of wood, as, 2. cudgel, club, Hdt.2.63.4.180, Ar.Lys.357, PHal.1.187
(iii B.C.); meta xulon eispeoesai PTeb.304. 10(ii A.D.); xulois suntriphein Luc.Demon.50; of the club
of Heracles. P1u.Lyc.30. 3. an instrument of punishment, a. wooden collar, put on the neck of the
prisoner, xulo phimoun ton auxena Ar.Nu.592 ; es tetremenon x. egkatharmosai .. ton a'uchena
Id.Lys.680; or, b. stocks, in which the feet were confined, Hdt.9.37, 6. 75, Ar.Eq.367, D.18.129; x..
ephelkein Polyzel.3; en to x. dedesthai Lys.10.16 (v. podokakke), cf. Act.Ap. 16.24, OGI483.181
(Pergam., ii A.D.) : also in pl., edesen en tois x.. And. I.45. c. pentesurigon xulon (v. sub voc.) was a
combination of both, with holes for the neck, arms, and legs, Ar.Eq.1049. d. gallows, kremasai tina epi
xulou LXX De.21: 22; x. didumon ib.Jo.8.29 ; prov., ex. axiou tou xulou kan apagxasthai, i.e. if one must be
hanged, at least let it be on a noble tree, App.Prov.2.67, cf. Ar.Ra.736 ; in NT, of the cross,
Act.Ap.5.30, 10.39. e. stake on which criminals were impaled, Alex.222.10. 4. bench, table, esp.
money-changer's table, D.45.33. 5. proton eulon front bench in the Athenian theatre, Ar.Ach.25,
V.90, cf. Sch. ad locc. : hence oupi ton xulon the official who had to take care of the seats. Hermipp.9
(according to Meineke). 6. the Hippocratic bench. Hp.Fract.13, Art.72. III. of live wood, tree,
[upos], dasu pollois kai pantaodapois kai megalois eulois X.An.6.4.5, cf. Call.Cer.41, Agatharch.55, LXX
Ca.2.3, al. : opp. sarx, Thphr.HP 1.2.6,a1. ; to x. tou dendrou analogon ten legoumenon einai gen
Plot.6.7.11 ; to x. tes ampelou E.Cyc.572 ; eiria apo xulon, of cotton, Hdt.3.47; eimata apo xulon
pepoinmena Id.7.65, cf. Poll.7.75. IV. of persons, blockhead,APl.4.187 ; of a stubborn person, sideros tis
e x. pros tas dendeis Ach.Tat.5.22. V. a measure of length = 3 (also 2 2/3) cubits, the side of the naubion ,
Hero Geom.23.4,11, POxy.669.11, 28 (iii A.D. , 1053 (vi/vii A. D.)." (Liddell, H.G., Scott, R. & Jones, H.S.,
"A Greek-English Lexicon," Seventh edition, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1883, pp.1191-1192. My
transliteration)
28/03/2008
"An even more extreme example of what might be called `masked churn' is the relatively tiny Jehovah's
Witnesses, with a turnover rate of about two-thirds. That means that two-thirds of the people who told Pew
they were raised Jehovah's Witnesses no longer are - yet the group attracts roughly the same number of
converts. Notes Lugo, `No wonder they have to keep on knocking on doors." (Van Biema, D., "America's
Unfaithful Faithful," TIME, February 25, 2008)
28/03/2008
"CROSS, CRUCIFY. The Greek word for cross, stauros, properly signified a stake, an upright pole, or
piece of paling, on which anything might be hung, or which might be used in impaling a piece of ground. But
a modification was introduced as the dominion and usages of Rome extended themselves through Greek-
speaking countries. Even amongst the Romans the crux (from which our cross is derived) appears to have
been originally an upright pole; and this always remained the most prominent part. But from the time that it
began to be used as an instrument of punishment, a transverse piece of wood was commonly added: not,
however, always even then. For it would seem that there were more kinds of death than one by the cross;
this being sometimes accomplished by transfixing the criminal with a pole, which was run through his back
and spine, and came out at his mouth (adactum per medium hominem, qui per os emergat, stipitem, Seneca,
Ep, xiv.) In another place (Consol ad Marciam, xx.), Seneca mentions three different forms: `I see,' says he,
"three crosses, not indeed of one sort, but fashioned in different ways; one sort suspending by the head
persons bent toward the earth, others transfixing them through their secret parts, others extending their arms
on a patibulum.' There can be no doubt, however, that the latter sort was the more common, and that about
the period of the gospel age crucifixion was usually accomplished by suspending the criminal on a cross
piece of wood." (Fairbairn, P., ed., "The Imperial Bible-Dictionary," Blackie & Son: Paternoster Row: London,
1867, Vol. I, p.376. Emphasis original)
28/03/2008
"But this does not of itself determine the precise form of the cross; for crosses of three different shapes
were known to have been in use. One, and that probably the most ancient, was in the form of the letter T,
which as commonly written consisted simply of a perpendicular line with another laid across the tap, making
two right angles, T In the earlier Christian writers this letter is often referred to as a symbol of the cross, and,
on account of such a resemblance, Lucian, in his usual style, prefers a charge against the letter (Judic. voc.
xii.) The letter X represents another sort, which has received the name of St. Andrew, from a tradition that on
a cross of this description the apostle of that name suffered martyrdom. But the commonest form, it is
understood, was that in which the upright piece of wood was crossed by another near the top, but not
precisely at it, the upright pole running above the other, thus and so making four, not merely two right
angles. It was on a cross of this form, according to the general voice of tradition, that our Lord suffered; but
there is nothing in the narratives of the evangelists which determines this to have been the form employed,
rather than either of the two. It is however, the one most commonly met with in the paintings and sculptures
that have survival from the earlier ages." (Fairbairn, P., ed., "The Imperial Bible-Dictionary," Blackie & Son:
Paternoster Row: London, 1867, Vol. I, pp.376-377)
28/03/2008
"Punishment by the cross was confined to slaves or to malefactors of the worst class (Hor. Sat. i. 3,82; Juv.
vi. 219). When a person was condemned to this punishment he was usually stripped and scourged (Livy,
xxxiii. 36; Val. Max. i.7). Before being actually condemned our Lord had been scourged, Lu. xxiii 16; Jn. xix. 1
and on this account probably, it was omitted afterwards. The criminal was appointed to carry his cross to
the place of execution (Plut. De Tard. Dei Vind.); which was also exacted, as a matter of course, at the hands
of Christ, though another was afterwards compelled to share the burden with him, Lu. xxiii. 26. When the
place of doom was reached, the criminal was stripped nearly naked, and either bound or nailed to the cross,
which was then hoisted and set up, so as to cause the feet of the victim to be three or four feet from the
earth. If the nailing was the most painful mode in the first instance, the other was more so in the end; for the
sufferer was left to die of sheer exhaustion, and when simply bound with thongs it might take days to
accomplish the process; for usually a strong pin projected out of the central stem, on which the body of the
sufferer rested. Instances are on record of persons surviving on a cross for nine days. But in our Lord's case
there were circumstances altogether peculiar, which must have greatly tended to shorten the period of
suffering. Ignorant of these, Pilate indicated his surprise that the death of Jesus should have occurred so
soon, Mar. xv. 44. And as there were peculiar circumstances tending to produce an unusually speedy death,
so there were reasons for effecting the removal of the body with the least possible delay. Had the Romans
been left to themselves they might have allowed the body to hang on the cross for days; but by the Jewish
law removal before sunset was imperative, De. xxi. 22, 23; and the near approach of the Jewish Sabbath-a
Sabbath also of peculiar solemnity -rendered it especially needful, in our Lord's case, that no time should be
lost in having the body committed to its proper resting-place.-It may be added, that crucifixion as a capital
punishment was abolished by Constantine, in consequence of the sacred associations which the cross had
now gathered around it." (Fairbairn, P., ed., "The Imperial Bible-Dictionary," Blackie & Son: Paternoster Row:
London, 1867, Vol. I, p.377)
28/03/2008
"The singular importance attaching to the death of Christ, according to the scheme of salvation unfolded in
the gospel, could not but communicate somewhat of its own character to the instrument on which it was
undergone. From being in itself the most vile and repulsive of objects, the cross has become in the minds of
believers the symbol of all that is holy and precious. As Christ crucified is the wisdom of God and the power
of God unto salvation, it was but natural that those who experienced the power of this salvation should
glory in the cross, as the instrumental occasion by which such unspeakable good had been procured. But
this is a feeling that obviously needs to be kept within definite bounds, and jealously guarded, lest it should
grow into a species of idolatry, and supplant the very object it was intended to honour. Apart from Christ
himself, the cross remains what it naturally was a base and contemptible thing, and utterly incapable, if
viewed otherwise than as the symbol of what he accomplished on it, of imparting either life or blessing. The
early Christians contemplated it merely as such a symbol; and hence it was usually associated in their minds
with hopeful and joyous, not with gloomy and ascetic feelings. :So it is justly remarked by Maitland, in his
interesting work on the catacombs, `When the cross was employed as an emblem, as it very often was, it.
wore a cheerful aspect. Pilate may set a seal upon the sepulchre, and the soldiers may repeat their idle tale;
but the church knows better; and, thinking rather of Christ's resurrection than of his death, she crowns the
cross with flowers.' On the early tomb-stones of the Christians, therefore, the cross was the emblem of
victory and hope, and they often had the word victrix written underneath or alongside of it." (Fairbairn, P.,
"The Imperial Bible-Dictionary," Blackie & Son: Paternoster Row: London, 1867, Vol. I, p.377)
28/03/2008
"It was only after the morbid and ascetic spirit of monkery had made way in the church that the cross
became associated with a gloomy, self-tormenting piety; and only when superstition took the place of true,
spiritual devotion, that the figure of the cross came to be used or borne about as a sacred charm. This last
abuse began much earlier than the other, for it appears to have prevailed extensively in the fourth, and to
have become not uncommon in the latter part of the third century. Even then people signed the cross in
token of safety, and laid stress on figures of it as a preservative against both spiritual and natural evil: This
superstitious feeling was at once expressed and stimulated by the discovery of what was held to be the true
sepulchre of Christ, and of the real cross on which he suffered. The empress Helena, mother of Constantine,
about the year A.D. 326, and when she was on the verge of eighty years old, made a pilgrimage to the holy
places, and was rewarded, among other things, by this notable discovery. A Jew, who doubtless
understood from the taste and tendencies of the noble visitant what was likely to bring the most grateful
response, furnished the information which led to the desired result; only, as three crosses were found at the
spot, it was for a time difficult to ascertain with certainty which might be the Saviour's. But on the
suggestion of Macarius, Bishop of Jerusalem, they were tested by their power of working miracles; and as
one only was reported to possess this quality, it was accordingly declared to be the genuine cross of Christ.
This, however, was but the beginning of wonders; for, as is well known, bits of this real cross soon began to
be distributed throughout Christendom; and the traffic grew till it was calculated the whole might have
sufficed to build a ship (if war, while the original remained still undiminished. It is one of the most striking
evidences on record of this melancholy proneness of the, human mind to idolatry and superstition, and
shows how close and vigilant a watch should be set on the workings of pious sentiment, from the moment it
begins to decline into a wrong direction! The subject, however, is this aspect of it, belongs to church
history rather than to that of biblical literature." (Fairbairn, P., ed., "The Imperial Bible-Dictionary," Blackie
& Son: Paternoster Row: London, 1867, Vol. I, pp.377-378)
28/03/2008
"Figuratively, cross is used in Scripture in a general way for what is painful and mortifying, to the flesh.
Our Lord himself so uses it when he says, `If any man will come after me, let him deny himself, and take up
his cross, and follow me,' Mat, xvi. 24 And THE CROSS, by way of eminence, that namely of Christ, is taken
as an emblem of the doctrine or religion with which it is so closely connected, Phi. iii. 18. The enemies of the
cross of Christ, are such as in their heart and behaviour are opposed to the spirit and design for which he
suffered on the accursed tree." (Fairbairn, P., ed., "The Imperial Bible-Dictionary," Blackie & Son:
Paternoster Row: London, 1867, Vol. I, pp.377-378. Emphasis original)
29/03/2008
"Many would dismiss the idea of Christianity before Christ as being ridiculous without looking at any
evidence. Yet some church fathers have admitted that the Christian religion did in fact exist before the
Christian era, including St. Augustine himself who said, `The very thing which is now called the Christian
religion existed among the ancients also, nor was it wanting from the inception of the human race until the
coming of Christ in the flesh, at which point the true religion which was already in existence began to be
called Christian.' This is an important book for those interested enough to look at valid research. It
approaches the subject from a general church view and a Gnostic point of view, plus chapters on The
Hebrew Scriptures, Non-Jewish Evidence, The Sun-God of the New Testament, and Sun-God Worship in the
Days of the Fathers. A man named Jesus may still have existed, but a number of pagan mythologies
involving the sun may have been added into the story of his life in order to bring the more stubborn pagans
of the time into the Christian fold. This timeless story should not diminish Christianity, but should enhance
it with a deeper spiritual value for those willing to shed a strict dogmatic viewpoint. It can be difficult to fully
understand our older religions because of their age and the changes that occur over time, but this book
goes back to uncover some of the more interesting elements that are shown to exist. It fits well for the more
modern world, as we continue to gain a better understanding of ourselves and the origins of our beliefs."
("Book Description," Parsons, J.D., "Our Sun-God: Or Christianity before Christ," [1895], Book Tree: San
Diego, 2007)
29/03/2008
"As has already been explained, words often have meanings that extend beyond their original etymology. ...
Now, the fact is that the Greek word stauros was often used to refer to the Roman instrument of execution
that was in Latin called the crux, from which (as the Watchtower itself has stated ["Reasoning from the
Scriptures," WB&TS, 1985, p.89]) we derive the word cross. ... In truth, the cross could and did take on a
variety of shapes, notably those similar to the Greek letter tau (T) and the plus sign (+), occasionally using
two diagonal beams (X), as well as (infrequently) a simple upright stake with no crosspiece. To argue that
only the last-named form was used, or that stauros could be used only for that form, is contradictory to
the actual historical facts and is based on a naive restriction of the term to its original or simplest meaning.
Indeed, the words stauros and crux were sometimes used for the entire cross, at other times for the
upright part alone, and at other times for the crosspiece alone. These historical facts about the stauros or
crux have been discussed in great detail in reputable scholarly works, and there is really no doubt about
them. " (Bowman, R.M., Jr., "Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses: Why They Read the Bible the Way They
Do," Baker: Grand Rapids MI, 1991, p.143)
29/03/2008
"Since the word stauros could refer to a cross, the upright part of a cross, the crossbeam, or to an upright
stake with no crossbeam, there is no basis in the word itself for the Jehovah's Witnesses' contention that
Jesus did not die on a cross. The question now is, does the Bible tell us anything else of relevance to this
question? The answer is yes. In John 20:25 the apostle Thomas, in expressing his doubt concerning Jesus'
resurrection, said, `Unless I see in his hands the print of the nails and stick my finger into the print of
the nails...' (NWT). According to Thomas, then, more than one nail was used to impale Jesus' hands to
the stauros. The most natural conclusion is that two nails were used, one for each hand, and that
therefore the hands were separated on a crossbeam of some sort. (It might be helpful to keep in mind here
that the word nail might better be rendered `spike,' since we are not talking about a thin little nail.) Once
this fact is noticed, the conclusion seems unavoidable that Jesus died on a cross." (Bowman, R.M., Jr.,
"Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses: Why They Read the Bible the Way They Do," Baker: Grand Rapids
MI, 1991, p.144. Emphasis original)
29/03/2008
"At this point, most Jehovah's Witnesses will probably appeal to W. E. Vine's Expository Dictionary
of New Testament Words, or to similar works, as Jehovah's Witnesses invariably do when this
question comes up. ["The Truth that Leads to Eternal Life," WB&TS, 1968, pp.142-143; "Aid to Bible
Understanding," WB&TS, 1971, pp.824-825.; "Reasoning from the Scriptures," WB&TS, 1985, pp.90-
91] However, neither Vine nor any of the other authors who deny that Jesus died on a cross and are
cited by the Watchtower publications, so far as I can tell, have dealt with the historical and
archaeological evidence .... Moreover, none of them appear to have dealt with the matter of John 20:25.
Despite the fact that Vine's work is generally well respected among evangelical Christians, on this
matter he is flat wrong." (Bowman, R.M., Jr., "Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses: Why They Read
the Bible the Way They Do," Baker: Grand Rapids MI, 1991, p.144)
29/03/2008
"Now, admittedly the shape of the stauros is of little consequence. But the Jehovah's Witnesses, by
making such an issue of it, have staked (pun intended) their reputation as accurate interpreters of the Bible
on a word study that any person acquainted with the literature on the subject should realize is shallow."
(Bowman, R.M., Jr., "Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses: Why They Read the Bible the Way They Do,"
Baker: Grand Rapids MI, 1991, p.144)
29/03/2008
"John 19:17 `Jesus was led away, and carrying the cross by himself (bastazón hautó ton stauron), went out to
what is called the Place of the Skull'. This is the decisive text, and it is one that is almost never mentioned in
discussions on the cross in Watchtower literature. But it is very important because it is an explicit reference to
the Roman practice of patibulum-bearing. Note that the verb bastazón `carrying' is the same verb used by
Chariton (i.e. `taking up [bastazón] his cross') and Artemidorus to refer to the same thing (i.e. `the man who is
to be nailed carries [bastazei] it beforehand'), and Artemidorus was quite explicit that the same victim who
carries the stauros would hang from a two-beamed stauros. The Latin sources mentioned earlier, which more
clearly distinguish the patibulum from the cross by having a distinct term for each, are quite explicit that it is
the crossbeam that is carried and not the stipes (upright pole). In fact, nowhere in ancient sources is a prisoner
ever described as dragging a pole without a crosspiece, and such a practice would have nothing to do with the
well-attested ancient Roman practice of forcing prisoners or slaves to bear a patibulum while walking through
the city or a public area. The synoptic gospels also refer to cross-bearing but claim that Simon of Cyrene carried
Jesus' cross. The original version in Mark 15:31 (cf. also Matthew 27:32) says that Simon lifted Jesus' cross (aré
ton staurou autou), but the Lukan version has a more elaborate depiction of the event: `And as they led him
away, they seized one Simon of Cyrene, who was coming from the country, and laid on him the cross
(epethékan autó ton stauron), to carry it (pherein) behind Jesus' (Luke 23:26). The verb pherein `to be
bearing' was also used by Chariton and Plutarch to refer to cross-bearing, and the verb epethékan `placed
upon' is especially suggestive of a patibulum placed squarely upon the victim's back (as Plutarch described it)
or across his chest and shoulders (as Dionysius of Halicarnassus put it). Compare with the use of the same verb
in Luke 15:5, describing a shepherd placing his lost sheep on his shoulders (epitithésin epi tous ómous), or its
use elsewhere to refer to the soldiers placing the crown of thorns on Jesus' head (Matthew 27:29, John 19:2) or
the people putting their garments on a donkey so Jesus could sit on it (Matthew 21:7). Since the Watchtower
writers believe that Jesus's cross was a crux simplex, they have no choice but to surmise that it lacked the
transverse beam that would have made it more carryable. The Greatest Man Who Ever Lived book (chapter
124, p. 3) in fact illustrates Simon pulling Jesus' stake by holding onto one end with both hands and dragging the
pole over his right shoulder, lumberjack-style. This scenario is nothing like the stauros-bearing described by
Plutarch (who described it as placed over the victim's back), and of course nothing like it can be found in ancient
literature or art; no classical or ecclesiastical writer of antiquity ever described the condemned man as carrying a
stipes without a crossbeam. Even the popular Christian conception of Jesus bearing the entire crux compacta
over one of his shoulders appears rather late in Christian art (cf. Yves Christe's Art of the Christian World, pp.
51, 482; the earliest known representation is from c. AD 430), and is probably unhistorical. The practice that is
instead attested is the carrying of the patibulum across one's shoulders or back, but the Watchtower rules out
this scenario a priori by their denial that stauros could refer to a cross with a crossbeam." (Leolaia, "The
facts on crucifixion, stauros, and the `torture stake'," Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June, 2005)
29/03/2008
"[John 21:] 18-19. Following the reinstatement of Peter, Jesus said to him, I tell you the truth, when you
were younger you dressed yourself and went where you wanted; but when you are old you will stretch out
your hands, and someone else will dress you and lead you where you do not want to go. This enigmatic
statement contrasts Peter's experience during his youth when he dressed himself and went wherever he
pleased, with what was to happen to him when he grew old. His independence would be stripped away. He
would be forced to stretch out his hands and others would 'clothe' him and lead him to a place he would not
wish to go. Stretching out the hands is an allusion to the way those to be crucified were forced to stretch
out their arms and bear the cross beam to the place of execution (cf. Barnabas 12:4; Justin, I Apology, 35).
The evangelist leaves us in no doubt about the intention of this saying: Jesus said this to indicate the kind
of death by which Peter would glorify God. Peter is known to have suffered a violent death (1 Clement 5:4)
by crucifixion (Tertullian, Scorpiace xv.3), and 21:18-19 is the earliest testimony to his martyrdom by this
means."(Kruse, C.G., "The Gospel According to St. John: An Introduction and Commentary," The Tyndale
New Testament Commentaries, Inter-Varsity Press: Leicester UK, 2003, pp.392-393. Emphasis original)
29/03/2008
"John 21:18-19 The last text under consideration is the most ambiguous and does not even refer to Jesus'
crucifixion but it is important because it a kind of death or execution involving a `stretching of the hands': `
'Truly, truly, I say to you, when you were young, you girded yourself and walked where you would; but
when you grow old, you will stretch out your hands (ekteneis tas kheiras sou), and another will gird you
and carry you where you do not wish to go.' This he said to show by what kind of death (poió thanató)
he was to glorify God. And after this he said to him, 'Follow me' `. As we saw above, the word ekteneis `you
will stretch out' here is the same verb that Epictetus used to refer to refer to men who have been crucified
(estauromenoi) (Dissertationes, 3.26.22), and Artemidorus (Oneirocritica, 1.76) mentioned that those
who will be `crucified' (staurothesetai) have `outstretched hands' (tón kheirón ektasin). We have also seen
similar phrases used by Lucian, Plautus, and Seneca. Since the death being described in John 21:18-19 is
that of Apostle Peter, and since Christian tradition otherwise claims that Peter was crucified upside down
(Acts of Peter 36-37; Tertullian, De Praescriptione Haericorum 36.12, Scorpiace 20, Adversus
Marcion 4.5; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum, 2; Origen, Commentary on Genesis, 3; Eusebius,
De Theophania, 5.31, Ecclesiastical History, 2.25.5; compare Seneca, De Consolatione 20.3, which
refers to upside-down crucifixions), the understated text in John 21:18-19 would appear to refer to crucifixion
as involving a `stretching of the hands'." (Leolaia, "The facts on crucifixion, stauros, and the `torture
stake,'" Jehovah's Witnesses Discussion Forum, 11 June, 2005)
29/03/2008
"[John 20:18-19]18. I most solemnly assure you, when you were younger, you used to gird yourself and to
walk where you wished (to walk); but when you will have become old, you will stretch out your hands, and
another will gird you, and bring you where you do not wish (to go). ... Now Jesus says, as it were, `In your
younger days, whenever you wished to go out, you used to gird yourself (literally, `you used to put on
your belt,' but here probably somewhat broader: `You used to get dressed for travel') and would walk
wherever you desired to walk.' The implication is that, on the whole, Peter did much as he pleased when he
was younger. ... This description of Peter's past uninhibited conduct is in sharp contrast with the prediction
which immediately follows: `But when you will have become old, you will stretch out your hands, and
another will gird you, and bring you where you do not wish (to go).' In his old age the moment would arrive
when, far from enjoying freedom of movement, Peter would have to raise his arms, so that a rope could be
tied around him (or possibly: so that he could be fastened to a cross; thus Tertullian). Contrary to the wish
of the flesh, he would then be brought to the place of execution. In this connection it is interesting to note
that the expression `to stretch out the hands' is often used by Greek authors and by the early fathers to
indicate crucifixion. 19. (This he said to signify by what kind of death he was to glorify God.) The passage
clearly indicates that when it was written Peter had already passed from the scene of history. In his death
God had been glorified (an expression also used with reference to Christ's own passion and death, 18:31, 32),
for in this apostle's willingness to suffer martyrdom for the cause of Christ God's grace was magnified. The
manner of Peter's death is related by the church-fathers, as follows: Eusebius: `But Peter seems to have
preached in Pontus and Galatia and Bithynia and Cappadocia and Asia, to the Jews of the Dispersion, and at
last, having come to Rome, he was crucified head downward, far so he himself had asked to suffer' (The
Ecclesiastical History III, i). Tertullian: `At Rome Nero was the first who stained with blood this rising faith.
Then is Peter girt by another when he is made fast to the cross' (Antidote for the Scorpion's Sting XV). Cf.
also Origen, Against Celsus II, xlv)." (Hendriksen, W., "A Commentary on the Gospel of John: Two
Volumes Complete and Unabridged in One," [1954], Banner of Truth: London, Third edition, 1964, pp.489-
490. Emphasis original)
30/03/2008
"But was not Jesus put to death on a two-beamed cross? The Bible indicates that he was not. At Acts 5:30 and
10:39, in both Catholic and Protestant Bible translations, we are told that Jesus died on a `tree.' The word `tree'
here translates the Greek word xylon (or xulon). Concerning this word and the word stauros, translated
`cross' in some versions, The Companion Bible says on page 186 in the `Appendixes': `Homer [ancient Greek
poet] uses the word stauros of an ordinary pole or stake, or a single piece of timber. And this is the meaning
and usage of the word throughout the Greek classics. It never means two pieces of timber placed across one
another at any angle, but always of one piece alone. Hence the use of the word xulon [or xylon, meaning a
timber] in connection with the manner of our Lord's death, ... The evidence is thus complete, that the Lord was
put to death upon an upright stake, and not on two pieces of timber placed at any angle.'" (Watchtower Bible &
Tract Society, "The Truth that Leads to Eternal Life," Watchtower Bible & Tract Society: Brooklyn NY, 1968,
pp.142-143. Emphasis original)
30/03/2008
"Ultra Dispensationalism While the Scofield Reference Bible has been largely influential in spreading
and popularizing Dispensational teachings, especially in America, there is another type of teaching which
has quite as much right to the name Dispensationalism as have the followers of Darby and Scofield. No one
could be more emphatic than was E. W. Bullinger (1837-1913) that `rightly dividing the word of truth' means
to divide it dispensationally. But Bullinger carried this method to such an extreme, a logical extreme we
believe, that his teachings have been roundly denounced by what we may call the Scofield party; and
Bullingerism has been stigmatized as `ultra' Dispensationalism. One of the most important differences has to
do, quite naturally, with the Church. Bullinger distinguished between the Pentecostal Apostolic Church of
the Book of Acts and the Mystery Pauline Church of the Prison Epistles. He called the one the `bride
church' and the other the `body church.' He held further that the church referred to in Matt. xvi., which Jesus
called `my church,' is distinct from both of these and will be a Jewish remnant church of the future.
Bullingerism has not attained any such widespread popularity as that enjoyed by the Darby-Scofield type of
Dispensationalism. We shall concern ourselves with it only in so far as its teachings serve to illustrate the
extreme positions to which Dispensationalism logically forces those who seek to carry it out to its ultimate
conclusions." (Allis, O.T., "Prophecy and the Church: An Examination of the Claim of Dispensationalists,"
[1945], Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing Co: Philadelphia PA, Third printing, 1964, p.15. Emphasis
original)
30/03/2008
"The Greek stauros has the primary meaning of a pole or stake, as the WT points out. What they don't
mention is that the word often refers to more complex constructions, such as the cross. The Latin word
crux usually translated `cross,' was also at times used to refer to a mere stake. What the WT specifically
ignores is that the Romans DID execute prisoners on crosses--an issue they are careful to sidestep in their
presentation. The horizontal bar of such crosses was called the patibulum, and the slaves to be executed
were customarily made to carry the patibulum to the place of execution. (Seneca, De Vita Beata 19:3;
Epistola 101:12; Tacitus, Historiae, IV, 3) Authoritative lexicons give the definition of stauros as a
`stake sunk into the earth in an upright position; a crosspiece was often attached to its upper part.'" [Arndt
& Gingrich, "A Greek-English Lexicon," p.772]." (Watters, R., "The Cross," Reprinted from "Refuting
Jehovah's Witnesses," Bethel Ministries: Manhattan Beach CA, 1996," 4 July 2007)
[top]
Copyright © 2008-2009, by Stephen E. Jones. All rights reserved. These my quotes may be used for
non-commercial purposes only and may not be used in a book, ebook, CD, DVD, or any other
medium except the Internet, without my written permission. If used on the Internet, a link back
to this page would be appreciated.
Created: 6 February, 2008. Updated: 10 April, 2009.